Payments For Health Care Services Research Articles

The catastrophic cost of motorcycle road traffic injuries: Experience from a major reference centre in a lower-middle income country

BackgroundMotorcycle crashes are an increasing public health problem in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). An accurate estimation of the economic burden of these crashes could be complex owing to a prevalent system of out-of-pocket (OOP) payment for health care services in these countries. Our study aims to objectively evaluate the cost implication of motorcycle Road Traffic Injuries (RTIs) among road crash victims managed at a major trauma reference hospital in Nigeria. Two economic evaluation methods were used to accurately reflect the cost-of-care (C-o-C) of each victim as well as for cross-validation. MethodThis is a prospective cohort study conducted between August 2020 and May 2021. All patients involved in motorcycle road traffic crashes presenting to the Emergency Department of the University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria, were included in the study. For each patient, all medical expenses from the time of injury (T0) to 30 days after injury (T30) or Time to death (TD) – whichever occurred first, were valued in costs, and added (Activity-based costing or ABC), while also estimating overall cost-of-care (C-o-C) at T30 or TD, using the willingness-to-pay (WTP) method. Following the WHO definition, catastrophic expenditure was defined as expenditure > 25% of the patient's estimated annual household income. ResultsOf the 150 consecutively managed motorcycle crashes victims during the study period, 112 had complete data. The median monthly household income for the cohort was $121 with 75% of them earning less than $180. The median cost-of-care (C-o-C), by ABC, was $242 ($143 - 828). For individual care items, expenditure on surgical intervention(s) was the highest followed by prosthesis and implant procurement, and radiological investigations. On the other hand, the estimated medical cost was $2356 (IQR $938 - 6475) by WTP. Only 14% had health insurance coverage. The overall expenditure was catastrophic for 46% of the patients. Monthly household income of < $180 (AOR=9.2; 95% CI=2.6–32.8; p < 0.001), absence of health insurance coverage (AOR=10.7; 95% CI=1.1–101.6; p = 0.040), and prolonged hospital stay above 14 days (AOR=25.1; 95% CI=5.5 -115.1; p = 0.001) were predictors of catastrophic expenditure. There was a weak positive correlation between actual cost-of-care using the ABC method and WTP (r = 0.247; p = 0.102). ConclusionThe aggregate cost of motorcycle RTIs is catastrophic for nearly half of the victims attending the University College Hospital, Ibadan. The willingness-to-pay method, though less tedious is often less reliable in these settings owing to a prevalent OOP payment system. This study identified the need to implement effective financial protection mechanisms against the high OOP expenditure faced by motorcycle crash victims in LMICs.

Establishment of Health Insurance Scheme for Informal Sector Populace in Ogun State Of Nigeria: A Mixed Methodology Approach

This study evaluated the perception of informal sector populace towards the proposed state health insurance (SHI) scheme and identified factors associated with willingness to join and pay for it; using mixed methodology. The mean age of the respondents was 39.67 with standard deviation of 13.94. Out-of-pocket payment for health care services accounted for 89.5% of healthcare financing. The level of awareness of the state health insurance schemes was 23.1%. The mean satisfaction score with health care system was 2.85 (± 0.51) out of 5 while the mean knowledge score on health insurance concept was 0.32 (± 0.31) out of 1. The average weight of concerns about the scheme management was 2.96 (± 0.47) out of 5. Willingness to join the scheme (which measured the demand for state health insurance scheme) was 65.3% whereas willingness to pay one thousand naira (N1000) per month per individual was 47.1% while willingness to pay four thousand naira (N4000) per month per family was 18.2%. However, preference for family package of health insurance was 73.3%. The maximum amount willing to pay was N1541.45 and N736.99 per month for a family and individual package respectively. Health insurance coverage among respondents was 7.4%. The study included six logistic regression models that identified predictors of satisfaction with present health care system, knowledge of health insurance concept, implementation concerns, willingness to join SHI, willingness to pay N1000 and N4000 respectively.

Equity in Out-of-Pocket Payments for Healthcare Services: Evidence from Malaysia.

Background: Out-of-pocket (OOP) payments are an inequitable mechanism for health financing as their high share of total health expenditures poses a risk of catastrophic healthcare expenditures. This study aimed to assess the distribution and progressivity of OOP payments made by Malaysian households for various group of healthcare services. Methods: This study utilized data from the Malaysian Household Expenditure Survey (HES) between 2014 and 2015, which involved 14,473 households. Distribution and progressivity of OOP payments were measured through their proportion of household consumption, a concentration curves plot and the Kakwani Progressivity Index (KPI). Results: The mean proportion of Malaysian OOP payments for healthcare of household consumption was 1.65%. The proportion increased across households’ consumption quintiles, from 1.03% made by the poorest 20% to 1.86% by the richest 20%. The OOP payments in Malaysia were progressive with a positive KPI of 0.0910. The OOP payments made for hospital-based services were the most progressive (KPI 0.1756), followed by medical products, appliances and equipment (KPI 0.1192), pharmaceuticals (0.0925) and outpatient-based services (KPI 0.0394) as the least progressive. Conclusions: Overall, the OOP payments for healthcare services in Malaysia were progressive and equitable as they were more concentrated among the richer households.

The inequalities and determinants of Households\u2019 Distress Financing on Out-off-Pocket Health expenditure in Malaysia

BackgroundOut-of-pocket (OOP) payments for healthcare services potentially have severe consequences on households, especially among the poor. Under certain circumstances, healthcare payments are financed through selling household assets, or borrowings. This certainly could influence households’ decision, which likely resorts to forgoing healthcare services. Thus, the focal point of this study is aimed to identify the inequalities and determinants of distress financing among households in Malaysia.MethodsThis study used secondary data from the National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS) 2019, a national cross-sectional household survey that used a two-stage stratified random sampling design involving 5,146 households. The concentration curve and concentration index were used to determine the economic inequalities in distress financing. Whereas, the determinants of distress financing were identified using the modified Poisson regression model.ResultsThe prevalence of borrowing without interest was the highest (13.86%), followed by borrowing with interest (1.03%) while selling off assets was the lowest (0.87%). Borrowing without interest was highest among rural (16.21%) and poor economic status (23.34%). The distribution of distress financing was higher among the poor, with a concentration index of -0.245. The modified Poisson regression analysis revealed that the poor, middle, rich, and richest had 0.57, 0.58, 0.40 and 0.36 times the risk to develop distress financing than the poorest socio-economic group. Whereas, the presence of one and two or more elderly were associated with a 1.94 and 1.59 times risk of experiencing distress financing than households with no elderly members. The risk of developing distress financing was also 1.28 and 1.58 times higher among households with one and two members receiving inpatient care in the past 12 months compared to none.ConclusionsThe findings implied that the improvement of health coverage should be emphasized to curtail the prevalence of distress financing, especially among those caring for the elderly, requiring admission to hospitals, and poor socio-economic groups. This study could be of interest to policymakers to help achieve and sustain health coverage for all.

User fee removal for the poor: a qualitative study to explore policies for social health assistance in Iran

IntroductionRemoval of user fee for vulnerable people reduces the financial barriers associated with healthcare payments, which, in turn, improves health outcomes and promotes health equity. This study sought to provide policy strategies to reduce user fee at the point of service delivery for the poor in Iran.MethodsThis is a qualitative study carried out in 2018. The purposive sampling method was applied, and 33 experts with relevant and valuable experiences and maximum variation to obtain representativeness and rich data were interviewed. Trustworthiness criteria were used to assure the quality of the results. The data were analyzed based on thematic analysis using the MAXQDA10 software.ResultsThe most important issue regarding financial protection against user fee for the poor in Iran is policy integration and cohesion. Differences in access to financial support for user fee coverage among different groups of the poor have led to inequalities in access and financial protection among the poor. The suggested protection policies against the user fee at the point of service delivery in Iran can be categorized into three main categories: 1) basic health social insurance instruments, 2) free health services to the poor outside of the health insurance system, and 3) complementary insurance mechanisms.ConclusionImplementing a cohesive social assistance policy for all disadvantaged groups is needed to address inequalities in financial protection against user fee payment among the poor in Iran. Reducing user fee through mechanisms such as deductible cap, stop-loss, variable user fee and sliding fee scale can improve financial protection and enhance healthcare utilization among the poor. A user fee exemption is not enough to remove barriers to access to service for the poor, as other costs such as transportation expenditures and informal payments also put financial pressure on them. Therefore, financial support for the poor should be designed in a comprehensive protection package to reduce out-of-pocket payments for healthcare services, and indirect costs associated with healthcare utilization.

Effects of a temporary suspension of community-based health insurance in Kwara State, North-Central, Nigeria.

Introductiona subsidized community health insurance programme in Kwara State, Nigeria was temporarily suspended in 2016 in anticipation of the roll-out of a state-wide health insurance scheme. This article reports the adverse consequences of the scheme´s suspension on enrollees´ healthcare utilization.Methodsa mixed-methods study was carried out in Kwara State, Nigeria, in 2018 using a semi-quantitative cross-sectional survey amongst 600 former Kwara community health insurance clients, and in-depth interviews with 24 clients and 29 participating public and private healthcare providers in the program. Both quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed and triangulated.Resultsmost of former enrollees (95.3%) kept utilizing programme facilities after the suspension, mainly because of the high quality of care. However, majority of the enrollees (95.8%) reverted to out-of-pocket payment while 67% reported constraints in payment for healthcare services after suspension of the program. In the absence of insurance, the most common coping mechanisms for healthcare payment were personal savings (63.3%), donations from friends and families (34.7%) and loans (11.8%). Being a male enrollee (odd ratio=1.61), living in a rural community (odd ratio =1.77), exclusive usage of Kwara Community Health Insurance Programme (KCHIP) prior to suspension (odd ratio=1.94) and suffering an acute illness (odd ratio=3.38) increased the odds of being financially constrained in accessing healthcare.Conclusionafter the suspension of the scheme, many enrollees and health facilities experienced financial constraints. These underscore the importance of sustainable health insurance schemes as a risk-pooling mechanism to sustain access to good quality health care and financial protection from catastrophic health expenditures.

Coding-Driven Changes In Measured Risk In Accountable Care Organizations.

Claims data, which form the foundation of risk adjustment in payment for health care services, may reflect efforts to capture more-or more severe-clinical conditions rather than true changes in health status. This can distort payments. We quantify this in the context of Medicare's accountable care organization (ACO) program by comparing risk scores derived from two different measurement approaches. One approach uses diagnoses coded on claims based on Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services Hierarchical Condition Categories (HCC), and the other uses self-reported, survey-based health data from the Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems (CAHPS). During 2013-16 HCC-based risk scores grew faster than CAHPS-based risk scores (2.1percent versus 0.3percent annually), and the gap in HCC- and CAHPS-based risk score growth varied widely across ACOs. The average gap in risk score growth appears to be the result primarily of HCC coding practices rather than poor performance of the CAHPS model, suggesting that coding practices (not necessarily driven by ACO contracts) may account for most of the observed risk score growth for ACO beneficiaries.

Informal payments in public hospitals in Malawi: the case of Kamuzu Central Hospital

BackgroundInformal payments in public health facilities act as a barrier to accessing quality health services, especially for poor people. This research aimed to investigate informal payments for health care services at Kamuzu Central Hospital (KCH), a public referral hospital in Malawi. Results of this study provide evidence on the prevalence and influencing factors of informal payments for health care so that relevant policies and strategies may be developed to address this problem.MethodsThis study employed a mixed methods research design. The quantitative study had a sample size of 295 patients and guardians. The qualitative study had 7 key informant interviews (with health workers, health managers and policy makers) and 3 focus group discussions (FGDs) with guardians. Each FGD included 10 participants. Thus, in total, the qualitative sample comprised 52 participants. Quantitative data was analyzed using Excel and STATA. Qualitative data was analyzed using a thematic content analysis approach.Results80% of patients and guardians had knowledge of informal payments. Approximately 47% of respondents admitted making informal payments to access health services, and 87% of informal payments were made at the request of a health worker. Lack of knowledge, fear and desperation among patients and guardians, low salaries of health workers, and lack of effective disciplinary measures, were reported as key factors influencing informal payments. Regression analysis results showed that occupation and gender were the main determinants of informal payments.ConclusionsInformal payments exacerbate inequality in access to free public health services. Particularly, poor people have limited access to health services when informal payments are demanded. This practice is unethical and infringes on people’s rights to universal access to health care. There is a need to strengthen the public health care system by formulating deliberate policies that will deter informal payments in Malawi.

The future of health care: A look forward for the allergist

It comes as no surprise that the delivery and payment for health care services in the United States are constantly changing. Recently, the federal government, through the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services Innovation (CMMI), was instructed to work toward value-based health care delivery models.1 The CMMI was developed to address these challenges through creativity and innovation.2 The allergy-immunology specialty is small (less than 6000 physicians), but our perspective of our nation's health care delivery system may be instructive for all the medicine as we adapt to these and other disruptive changes in health care.

Utilization of eye health services and diabetic retinopathy: a cross-sectional study among persons living with diabetes visiting a tertiary eye care facility in Ghana

BackgroundThere have been a major advance made in screening, early diagnosis, and prompt treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy among Person living with diabetes (PLWD). However, screening services remain a challenge in Low-Middle-Income-Countries where access to eye care professionals is inadequate. This study assesses the utilization of Eye Health Service prevalence (UEHS) among PLWD and associated factors and further quantifies its association with Non-Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (NPDR).MethodsA cross-sectional study design with a random sample of 360 PLWD was conducted at Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital, a National Referral Centre in Ghana from May to July 2019. UEHS and DR were the study outcomes. We adopted Poisson and Probit regression analysis to assess factors associated with UEHS over the past year. We employed pairwise and phi correlation (fourfold correlational analysis) to assess the relationship between UEHS and DR (ordinal and binary respectively). Ordered Logistic and Poisson regression were applied to assess the association between the UEHS and DR. Stata 16.1 was used to perform the analyses and a p-value ≤ 0.05 was deemed significant.ResultsThe prevalence of UEHS over the past year and DR was 21.7 %(95 %CI = 17.7–26.2) and 65.0 %(95 %CI = 59.9–69.8 respectively. The prevalence of severe NPDR with Clinically Significant Macular Edema (CSME) was 23.9 %(19.8–28.6). Type of diabetes, increasing age, educational level, mode of payment for healthcare services, marital status, years since diagnosis, and current blood glucose significantly influenced UEHS. There was a negative relationship between DR and UEHS (Pairwise and φ correlation were − 20 and − 15 respectively; p < 0.001). Non-UEHS among PLWD doubles the likelihood of experiencing severe NPDR with CSME compared with UEHS among PLWD [aOR(95 %CI) = 2.05(1.03–4.08)]. Meanwhile, the prevalence of DR among patients per non-UEHS was insignificantly higher [12 %; aPR(95 %CI) = 0.89–1.41)] compared with patients who utilized eye care health service.ConclusionsMost of the PLWD did not utilize the eye health service even once in a year and that was highly influenced by type of diabetes and increasing age. Type 2 diabetes patients and middle age decreased the likelihood of UEHS. There was a negative relationship between DR and UEHS among PLWD and this doubled the likelihood of experiencing severe NPDR with CSME. Structured health education and screening interventions are key to improving UEHS.

Can Asia provide models for tax-based European health systems? A comparative study of Singapore and Sweden.

Singapore's health system generates similar levels of health outcomes as does Sweden's but for only 4.4% rather than 11.0% of gross domestic product, with Singapore's resulting health sector savings being re-directed to help fund both long-term care and retirement pensions for its elderly citizens. This paper contrasts the framework of financial risk-sharing and the configuration and management of health service providers in these two high-income, small-population countries. Two main institutional distinctions emerge from this country case comparison: (1) Key differences exist in the practical configuration of solidarity for payment of health care services, reflecting differing cultural roots and social expectations, which in turn carry substantial implications for financing long-term care and pensions. (2) Differing arrangements exist in the organization of health service institutions, in particular balancing public as against private sector responsibilities for owning, operating and managing these two countries' respective hospitals. These different structural characteristics generate fundamental differences in health sector financial and delivery outcomes in one developed country in Far East Asia as compared with a well-respected tax-funded health system in Western Europe. In the post-COVID era, as Western European policymakers find themselves forced to adjust their publicly funded health systems to (further) reductions in economic growth rates and overall tax receipts, and as the cost of the information revolution continues to rise while efforts to fund better coordinated social and home care services for growing numbers of chronically ill elderly remain inadequate, this two-country case comparison highlights a series of health system design questions that could potentially provide alternative health sector financing and service delivery strategies.

Willingness to Pay for Community-Based Health Insurance Scheme and Associated Factors Among Rural Communities in Gemmachis District, Eastern Ethiopia.

BackgroundIn sub-Saharan Africa, out-of-pocket expenditures constitute approximately 40% of total healthcare expenditures, imposing huge financial burdens on the poor. To tackle the effects of out-of-pocket payment for healthcare services, Ethiopia has been focusing on implementation and expansion of a community-based health insurance (CBHI) program since 2011. This study assessed willingness to pay for CBHI scheme and associated factors among rural communities in Gemmachis district, eastern Ethiopia.MethodsCommunity-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 446 randomly selected participants in Gemmachis district from April 1 to April 30, 2019. Data were collected from participants using pretested structured questionnaires through face-to-face interview. Data were entered into EpiData version 3.1 and analyzed using SPSS version 24. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify factors associated with willingness to pay for CBHI.ResultsA total of 440 (98.7%) participants were involved in the study. Three in every four (74.8%) participants were willing to pay for CBHI (95% CI: 70.7%, 78.9%). Primary education (AOR=5.1, 95% CI: 2.4, 11.1), being merchant (AOR=0.23, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.51), housewife (AOR=3.8, 95% CI: 1.3, 11.0), poor (AOR=2.5, 95% CI: 1.3, 4.7), illness in the last one year (AOR=3.1, 95% CI, 1.9, 5.2), good knowledge about CBHI (AOR=2.3, 95% CI: 1.5, 3.6) and access to public health facility (AOR=2.0,95% CI: 1.1, 3.7) were all significantly associated with willingness to pay for CBHI.ConclusionA significant proportion of participants were willing to pay for CBHI scheme. Education, occupation, wealth status, illness in the last one year, knowledge about CBHI and access to healthcare facility were factors significantly associated with willingness to pay for CBHI. If the scheme is to serve as a means to provide access to health service, the premium for membership should be tailored and customized by individual socioeconomic factors.

German Family Practitioners' Attitude toward the Legal and Economic Framework of their Professional Work

Advances in medical technology, demographic developments and changes in society's understanding of health and illness are altering the requirements in modern family medicine. In parallel, the privately financed secondary health care market is growing. The practice of family medicine is shaped by the regulatory environment of the Code of Social Law (economical, reasonable, necessary, practicable) but now increasingly by the economic orientation of the secondary health care market and by legal questions as well. To capture the implications of these developments, German family practitioners were surveyed about the resultant attitudes and consequences. A total of 500 family doctors took part in an online survey regarding the medical practice. The questionnaire was developed and pre-tested on the basis of semi-structured interviews. It contained items related to the implications of the secondary health care market as well as questions about commercial and legal consequences. Except for the sex of participants, the sample was representative of the overall distribution of family practitioners in Germany. Every second doctor practicing family medicine dislikes private payment for health care services; 75% perceived negatively the influence of non-medical actors in the public health sector on medical measures. Only 8% of the participants agreed with the statement that integration of innovative care concepts through digitalization improved patient care while 37% rejected it; 41% of those surveyed advocated stronger legal monitoring due to the increasingly negative influence of privatization. However, approximately two-thirds of the participants felt that current legislation, including the passage of the Anti-Corruption Law of 2016, was inadequate. The confidence of family doctors in legal prosecution for medical criminal acts was minimal. The self-image of family medicine will change through stronger integration among the commercial and legal aspects, which will be necessary for modern family medicine. A critical discussion regarding the possible effects of a competitive orientation must closely accompany any innovative care. In addition to the risk of the economization of practices, combining the classical health care system with the secondary health care market also offers opportunities to improve the quality of medical care.

Informal out-of-pocket payments for healthcare services in Greece

BackgroundInformal out-of-pocket (OOP) payments for healthcare services are not unusual in Greece. AimThis study estimates the association between respondent and incident-level characteristics and informal payments. MethodsA survey of 4218 households was conducted from November 2016 to February 2017. We analyzed healthcare incidents by all household members within the past four months. Multivariate negative binomial regression analysis was used to estimate the association between respondents and incident-level characteristics and informal OOP payments to providers. ResultsA total of 3494 healthcare incidents were reported by 3183 household-representatives. More-than-half (63 %) of all incidents involved informal activity (median=€150). About 30 % of those were related to provider requested payments. Using hospital, dental, diagnostic/screening, and emergency department services compared to primary care services and having oncological and surgical conditions were among the strongest predictors of higher rates for informal payments. The use of specific providers for reasons related to trust, reputation, referral, and lack of alternatives was also associated with higher rates of informal payments. Provider requested and skip the line payments were associated with larger OOP amounts compared to gratitude payments. ConclusionThis survey reveals that informal payments occur for higher-need and less cost-responsive healthcare services particularly in areas where patients lack alternatives. Health policy and regulatory interventions, including stricter control of the financial reporting system are essential to limit informal payments.

A Systematic Review of Equity in Healthcare Financing in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

ObjectivesThe present systematic review aimed to assess the healthcare financing system by studying the relevant indicators in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The focus of this research was on the entire healthcare system without considering any specific healthcare service or population group. This article explains the conditions of equity in people’s payments for healthcare services in LMICs and focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of successful or failed healthcare systems. MethodsA systematic search was conducted in the existing database that included the data up to December 2016. The quantity of equity was estimated using relevant indicators and comparing the results with indicators’ specific values. Narrative synthesis was then performed for the purpose of reporting the results. ResultsA total of 17 articles from 14 regions, including Palestine, China, China (Heilongjiang), China (Gansu), Ghana, Hungary, Iran, Tunisia, Tanzania, Malaysia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Uganda, and Chile met the inclusion criteria. The findings indicated that the insurance system (individual and social) is the most equitable method of financing, whereas direct payment is the most unfair method. Nevertheless, many countries still struggle with various payment methods, and people use direct payments. ConclusionsResults revealed that several factors can affect a country’s failure to establish equity in financing the health system. These factors include an increase in direct payments by people to reduce the government’s share, failure to cover insurance for the entire population (and especially the poor), and problems in identifying people from low-income groups and setting rules for exempting them from taxes.

ЗАРУБІЖНИЙ ДОСВІД ФІНАНСУВАННЯ СИСТЕМ ОХОРОНИ ЗДОРОВ'Я

The article is devoted to the study of foreign experience of health systems' financial support in different countries. The results of its comparative analysis are presented. The main features of the fundraising and financing in the health sector are emphasized. As a result of the comparison, it is proved that there is no one-size-fits-all model. Each country has to take into account the needs and opportunities for social development while building a system of economic relations. It is shown that in 2017 expenditures of Ukrainian consolidated budget for health care 3,4% of gross domestic product. Charitable funds and humanitarian aid providers were also engaged in health system financing. However, official funding coexists with shadow or informal out-of-pocket payments for healthcare services. It is established that the amount of healthcare financing in Ukraine is close to the European one, but the constitutional principle of equal access to health care for different segments of the population is violated. As a solution, we offer to use the experience of the developed countries with health systems recognized as successful. After all, the accumulated experience of different countries indicates the dependence between the effectiveness of the health care system and its ability to use resources rationally. An innovative model of health financing, providing the combined financial support, is offered and developed. It is concluded that in today's society there are four models of health financing. These are the consumer preference model (out-of-pocket health financing system), the Bismarck model (socially oriented health financing system), the Beveridge model (governmental health financing system) and the Semashko model (state budget with tight centralization of industry management). Each of the models analyzed has its advantages and disadvantages. Choosing a health financing model is a strategically important task for every country, which have to build a system of economic relations that takes into account objective needs and opportunities, and is aware of the ever-increasing economic and social value of a healthy society.

Promoting Competition in Healthcare Enforcement and Policy: Framing an Active Competition Agenda

Promoting Competition in Healthcare Enforcement and Policy: Framing an Active Competition Agenda

Patient Preferences and Willingness to Pay for Cervical Cancer Prevention in Zambia: Protocol for a Multi-Cohort Discrete Choice Experiment.

BackgroundAlthough most countries in southern Africa have cervical cancer screening programs, these programs generally fail to reach a significant majority of women because they are often implemented as pilot or research projects, and this limits their scope and ability to scale up screening. Some countries have planned larger-scale programs, but these have either never been implemented or have not been successfully scaled up. Most of the global burden of cervical cancer is experienced in countries with limited resources, and mortality from cervical cancer is the most common cause of cancer-related deaths among women in Sub-Saharan Africa.ObjectiveThe purpose of this study is to learn about preferences for cervical cancer screening in Zambia, to identify barriers and facilitators for screening uptake, and to evaluate willingness to pay for screening services to support the scaling up of cervical cancer screening programs.MethodsWe will conduct a discrete choice experiment by interviewing women and men and asking them to choose among constructed scenarios with varying combinations of attributes relevant to cervical cancer screening. To inform the discrete choice experiment, we will conduct focus groups and interviews about general knowledge and attitudes about cervical screening, perception about the availability of screening, stigma associated with cancer and HIV, and payment for health care services. For the discrete choice experiment, we will have a maximum design of 120 choice sets divided into 15 sets of 8 tasks each with a sample size of 320-400 respondents. We will use a hierarchical Bayesian estimation procedure to assess attributes at the following two levels: group and individual levels.ResultsThe model will generate preferences for attributes to assess the most important features and allow for the assessment of differences among cohorts. We will conduct policy simulations reflecting potential changes in the attributes of the screening facilities and calculate the projected changes in preference for choosing to undergo cervical cancer screening. The findings from the discrete choice experiment will be supplemented with interviews, focus groups, and patient surveys to ensure a comprehensive and context-based interpretation of the results.ConclusionsBecause willingness to pay for cervical cancer screening has not been previously assessed, this will be a unique and important contribution to the literature. This study will take into account the high HIV prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa and prevailing gender attitudes to identify an optimal package of interventions to reduce cervical cancer incidence. This simulation of women’s decisions (and men’s support) to undergo screening will lay the foundation for understanding the stated preferences and willingness to pay to help design future screening programs.Registered Report IdentifierRR1-10.2196/10429

Consolidation in Provider and Insurer Markets: Enforcement Issues and Priorities

Consolidation in Provider and Insurer Markets: Enforcement Issues and Priorities

Inequitable Access to Health Care by the Poor in Community-Based Health Insurance Programs: A Review of Studies From Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Out-of-pocket payments for health care services lead to decreased use of health services and catastrophic health expenditures. To reduce out-of-pocket payments and improve access to health care services, some countries have introduced community-based health insurance (CBHI) schemes, especially for those in rural communities or who work in the informal sector. However, there has been little focus on equity in access to health care services in CBHI schemes. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, African Journals OnLine, and Africa-Wide Information for studies published in English between 2000 and August 2014 that examined the effect of socioeconomic status on willingness to join and pay for CBHI, actual enrollment, use of health care services, and drop-out from CBHI. Our search yielded 755 articles. After excluding duplicates and articles that did not meet our inclusion criteria (conducted in low- and middle-income countries and involved analysis based on socioeconomic status), 49 articles remained that were included in this review. Data were extracted by one author, and the second author reviewed the extracted data. Disagreements were mutually resolved between the 2 authors. The findings of the studies were analyzed to identify their similarities and differences and to identify any methodological differences that could account for contradictory findings. Generally, the rich were more willing to pay for CBHI than the poor and actual enrollment in CBHI was directly associated with socioeconomic status. Enrollment in CBHI was price-elastic-as premiums decreased, enrollment increased. There were mixed results on the effect of socioeconomic status on use of health care services among those enrolled in CBHI. We found a high drop-out rate from CBHI schemes that was not related to socioeconomic status, although the most common reason for dropping out of CBHI was lack of money to pay the premium. The effectiveness of CBHI schemes in achieving universal health coverage in low- and middle-income countries is questionable. A flexible payment plan where the poor can pay in installments, subsidized premiums for the poor, and removal of co-pays are measures that can increase enrollment and use of CBHI by the poor.