Patterns Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Effects of land utilization transformation on ecosystem services in urban agglomeration on the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountains, China

Land utilization transformation (LUT) is a key factor affecting ecosystem services (ESs). The urban agglomeration on the Northern Slope of the Tianshan Mountains (UATM) is located in a typical arid region with extremely fragile ecological environment. However, the impact of LUT on the spatial pattern of ESs in the region over the past 20 years is not clear. This study aimed to explore LUT characteristics of the urban agglomeration on the UATM using a land transfer matrix, information entropy, land utilization intensity, and land utilization dynamic degree. Various ESs indexes were quantitatively measured using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model, and the effect of LUT on ESs was revealed through a geographic detector and spatial auto-correlation analyses. The results of this study led to the following conclusions: First, between 2000 and 2020, the primary land utilization types in UATM were arable land, grassland, and bare land, with significant cross-transformations occurring among these types. Meanwhile, LUT showed marked differences among different regions. LUT changed rapidly and significantly in the central region; in contrast, slower and slight changes were observed in the northern and southern regions. Second, during the research period, habitat maintenance, water yield and carbon sequestration decreased, and the soil retention function increased. The accelerated urban development in the second decade led to more rapid changes in ESs. Finally, both the structure and intensity of land utilization showed the strongest explanatory capability for changes in ESs. Different dimensions of LUT showed significant interactions with ESs. Therefore, it is advisable to guide LUT scientifically, promote vegetation restoration projects, alleviate the impacts of human activities and climate change on ESs, and enhance the ecological safety and environmental sustainability of UATM and even arid regions in Central Asia.

Distribution and Change Characteristics of Ecosystem Services in Highly Urbanized Areas along Gradients of Human Activity Intensity: A Case Study of Shenzhen City, China

Comprehensively and objectively revealing the spatial relationship between ecosystem services (ESs) and human activity intensity (HAI) is vital for achieving sustainable development goals. However, existing studies still have an incomplete understanding of how ESs change with HAI gradients. Therefore, taking Shenzhen City, China, as an example region experiencing rapid urbanization, the distribution of ESs and HAI in 2010 and 2020 were quantified using the InVEST model and the human footprint index method; at the same time, the gradient perspective was introduced and the spatial and temporal correlation characteristics of ESs along 10 HAI gradient bands, from weak to strong, were captured by applying multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) and the bivariate spatial autocorrelation model. The findings showed that (1) the HAI demonstrated an increasing trend (20.63 (2010) and 23.36 (2020)), and the area with high values of HAI (the 10th gradient band) was distributed in the western part of the study area; meanwhile, the area with low HAI values (the 1st gradient band) was more distributed in the eastern part of the study area. (2) On the whole, the average levels of water conservation, soil conservation, carbon storage, and habitat quality decreased from 2010 to 2020; the spatial distribution characteristics of these parameters were similar. (3) In general, ESs were negatively correlated with HAI, and the negative correlation ratio was more than 65%. At the same time, the spatial and temporal correlations between ES patterns and HAI under different gradient bands were significant. These findings can effectively alleviate the pressure on the ecosystem caused by human activities, which is of great significance for the sustainable development of highly urbanized regions.

Mapping ecosystem service clusters and exploring their driving mechanisms in karst peak-cluster depression regions in China

Understanding the intricate interrelationships among ecosystem services (ESs) and exploring their driving mechanisms are prerequisites for their efficient management. The southwestern karst region is a typical ecologically fragile area and a crucial component for establishing an ecological security barrier in southern China. We aimed to evaluate the relationship between ESs and the concept of ecosystem service bundles (ESBs) and explore the distribution of ESs and their interrelationships. Using methods, such as Spearman's correlation and spatial autocorrelation analysis, this study focused on the karst peak-cluster depression region in southwestern China to analyse the trade-offs and synergistic effects among 12 ESs. Additionally, this study used the self-organizing map to identify ESBs and used the Random Forest model to explore the potential driving factors influencing the distribution patterns of ESs. The results indicated a spatial clustering effect among the 12 ESs, whereby provisioning and cultural services had the most significant clustering effect (Moran's I > 0.8). A total of 25 pairs of ESs exhibited synergistic effects, and 31 pairs showed trade-off effects. Food production showed a trade-off with both regulatory and supporting services, whereas ESs within the same category tended to exhibit synergistic effects. The distribution and interrelationships of ESs are influenced by natural and social factors, such as climate, topography, and human activities, resulting in the formation of six ESBs. This study enriches the understanding of the relationship of ESs and will contribute to the coordinated development of resources and the environment in the karst peak-cluster depression region of southwestern China.

Interactions among ecosystem service key factors in vulnerable areas and their response to landscape patterns under the National Grain to Green Program

AbstractA deeper understanding of the interactions between ecosystem services (ESs) and the drivers of the landscape patterns behind them is critical to how ecological restoration projects in ecologically sensitive and fragile areas are planned and managed. However, few studies have explored the response patterns of ESs to changes in landscape patterns from a geospatial perspective. This study aimed to reveal the relationship between key ESs and landscape pattern responses at spatial scales and to propose the optimization of ecological restoration measures in response to ES trade‐offs problem. The InVEST and CASA models were used to assess the spatial and temporal characteristics of five key ESs in the Beichuan River Basin since the completion of the National Grain to Green Program (2000–2020), selected five key factors are as below: habitat quality (HQ); net primary productivity (NPP); water supply (WS); soil conservation (SC); and water conservation (WC). Geographically weighted regression (GWR) models were used to reveal the trade‐offs and synergies between ESs and the driving mechanisms of landscape patterns from a geospatial perspective. The results showed that landscape connectivity in the study area improved and landscape fragmentation decreased during 2000–2020, accompanied by the increase in HQ, SC, and WC, while NPP and WS decreased. The trade‐offs between ESs appeared mainly between NPP and other ESs, with the NPP–WS pair trade‐off being the strongest. Spearman correlation analysis, geographic detectors, and GWR revealed that the dominant landscape pattern indices affecting ESs showed good agreement. The interaction of the two landscape pattern indices had stronger explanatory power for the variation in ESs than any single landscape pattern index. The patch density index, as the most important landscape pattern index affecting NPP and WS, should be the primary consideration in future landscape planning to reconcile the contradiction between WS and NPP. Because of the inherent spatial heterogeneity of ESs and landscape patterns, analyzing their response relationships from a geospatial perspective can provide scientific guidance to decision‐makers.

Sustainability threshold for multiple ecosystem services in the Venice lagoon, Italy

One of the biggest challenges for ecosystem services (ES) science is to make the concept operational for decision-making purposes. The capacity to understand the long-term sustainability of multiple ES is still limited, while being highly needed to improve the management of natural resources. This work aims to use ES, and particularly the assessment of their capacity and flow, to explore the sustainability of the ES provision in the coastal social-ecological system of the Venice lagoon, Italy, by adopting a spatially explicit approach. By applying multivariate analysis on the ES maps, a zonation is derived which reflects the different bundles of ES in the lagoon. A new approach to analyze the ES bundles is presented, which determines their degree of sustainability. Building on the rationale that not all combinations of ES are desirable for the long-term maintenance of ES capacity, a ‘sustainability threshold’ for multiple ES is proposed. This threshold corresponds to a balance between ES capacity and flow, and to a balance between the flow of regulating ES and the flow of ES mediated by human activities. The results show that about 53% of the lagoon’s surface is exploited to a level that falls beyond the ‘sustainability threshold’ and thus should be considered in an unsustainable condition. This reveals the need to intervene to change the patterns of ES uses in some areas of the lagoon, to enjoy the benefits offered by the ecosystem without impairing its capacity to provide them. Some potential directions for change are discussed, moving towards a more sustainable management of the lagoon social-ecological system.

Impacts of landscape pattern evolution on typical ecosystem services in Ganjiang River Basin, China.

Understanding the response mechanism of ecosystem services (ES) to landscape patterns is important in regional landscape planning and sustainable development. In this study, the landscape index and InVEST model were used to quantitatively analyze the spatio-temporal evolution of landscape patterns and ES in the Ganjiang River Basin of China from 1990 to 2020. Furthermore, the bivariate Moran's I method and spatial error model were used to test the spatial correlation between landscape index and ES. The results showed that (1) cropland decreased and construction land increased, and the overall landscape tended to be fragmented, the patch shape complicated, and landscape diversity increased from 1990 to 2020. Water conservation (WC) and soil conservation (SC) capacity increased by 10.56mm and 16.24 t hm-2 a-1, respectively, whereas carbon storage (CS) decreased by 1.22 t hm-2 a-1. (2) The responses of different typical ES to landscape patterns were different in the landscape index and response degree. Typical ES negatively responded to Shannon's diversity index and patch density. WC was sensitive to the Splitting Index, whereas SC and CS were more responsive to the average patch area. (3) The overall purpose of territorial spatial planning within a basin should be to reduce the fragmentation and heterogeneity of the landscape. According to four local aggregation patterns of landscape index and ES, corresponding measures can be taken according to local conditions in different regions. These results can provide a quantitative basis for landscape management and ecological construction in the Ganjiang River Basin and scientific guidance for the Yangtze River conservation strategy.

Fine grid scale increases or decreases the trade-off effect between ES in mountain protected areas?

A crucial challenge in ecosystem management is the identification of trade-off effects among multiple ecosystem services (ESs), particularly in complex and ecologically vulnerable mountainous protected areas. Nevertheless, investigations into the spatio-temporal dynamics of trade-offs and synergies among ES within such protected regions remain limited. This study concentrated on the Qilian Mountain, a critical ecologically fragile protected area, utilized the Invest model to comprehensively analyze six ESs over the period 1985–2020. Employed Pearson correlation coefficient, we scrutinized trade-off and synergy relationships of these ES across varying grid scales (30 m, 1 km, and 10 km). Furthermore, GeoDetector, in tandem with multi-source data, is employed to unveil the potential drivers influencing the patterns of ES. Our findings revealed that: (1) Increasing data spatial resolution refines grid scales, yielding smoother spatial distributions of ES, and accentuates spatial disparities. (2) Synergistic relationships prevailed among protected area ES from 1985 to 2020, with correlations between carbon storage - water yield and habitat quality - water yield shifted from synergy to trade-off in 2015. (3) Distinct grid scales exert non-linear impacts on ES correlations, affecting both the magnitude and direction of these relationships. (4) Interactions among natural factors, climate, and landscape patterns are principal drivers of spatial heterogeneity in ES, with the contributions of dominant drivers exhibiting temporal variability. Remarkably, factors with stronger driving forces demonstrate greater temporal instability in their contribution rates. Our research underscores the necessity for comparative assessments of ES and their interrelations at diverse data spatial resolutions, advocating for enhanced ES management strategies.

Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity of Coastal Wetland Ecosystem Services in the Yellow River Delta and Their Response to Multiple Drivers

Understanding on the spatiotemporal interactions between ecosystem services (ESs) and social–ecological drivers is crucial for the design of sustainable development strategies for coastal wetlands. In this paper, we took the Yellow River Delta (YRD) as a case study, based on multiple evaluation methods to study the spatiotemporal dynamics of ESs in the YRD from 1980 to 2020. With the help of principal component analysis (PCA) for identification of multiple drivers, we researched the spatiotemporal differentiation and influence mechanism of drivers on ESs, using the coupling coordination degree (CCD) model and geographically and temporally weighted regression (GTWR) model, and subsequently provided the development strategy for each district in Dongying City. The results showed that (1) the patterns of ESs were spatially heterogeneous, with a fluctuating upward trend from 1980 to 2020, which was mainly affected by regulating service. (2) Our spatiotemporal analysis of ES interactions identified that cultural service was mainly disorder with other ESs. Nevertheless, in wetlands, various ESs can basically develop in a coordinated manner. (3) We integrated multiple drivers into five principal components by PCA, to which the response of ESs had spatial heterogeneity. (4) Consequently, we integrated spatiotemporal knowledge on ES interactions and their drivers into spatial planning.

Challenges Entailed in Applying Ecosystem Services Supply and Demand Mapping Approaches: A Practice Report

The Ecosystem Services (ES) concept has been acknowledged by scientists, policy-makers and practitioners to have the potential to support sustainable policy- and land-use decision-making. Therefore, a growing number of research activities are investigating the integration potential of the ES concept into real-world policy- and decision-making processes. These research activities are often confronted with conceptual challenges and methodological obstacles when applying different ES mapping approaches. This study is reporting those challenges encountered during a research project in Germany. In this research project, two urban regions, Rostock and Munich, were selected as case-study areas. In both urban regions, dynamic urbanisation processes occur across the urban administrative boundaries and threaten the supply of multiple ES in the periurban landscapes. The research project invited local stakeholders from the two urban regions to workshops and online meetings to discuss ES-related topics. For those events, maps visualising the spatial patterns of multiple ES were needed for communication and awareness-raising of the ES concept. We chose commonly used and relatively easy-to-apply mapping methods such as: (1) expert-based ES matrix approach, (2) simple GIS mapping with proxy indicators and data, and (3) simple ES models such as InVEST. We encountered several challenges during the mapping processes: The expert-based matrix approach provided valuable results for ES supply, but had limitations in assessing expert estimates for ES demand. Alongside other factors, evolving barriers related to the conceptual complexity of ES demand. Data unavailability/inaccessibility resulted in difficulties mapping all selected ES with proxy indicators at the targeted regional scale. So far, only a few individual ES can be modelled with InVEST models. Despite these challenges, the resulting maps were helpful for communication with local stakeholders. The discussions with stakeholders provided valuable insights into the future needs for ES research and identified existing barriers and challenges. We want to summarise and share our experiences and provide recommendations for future research on mapping ES supply and demand in urban regions.

Residents’ Preference for Urban Green Space Types and Their Ecological-Social Services in China

With accelerated urbanization and rapid expansion of the urban population, there is an increasing demand among urban residents for urban green spaces (UGS) and the ecosystem services (ES) they provide. The existing research mostly focuses on the spatial pattern of UGS types and ES provided by different UGS but ignores that residents’ preferences for UGS types and their ecological and social services should also be incorporated into the spatial planning decision-making of UGS. A web-based questionnaire was distributed randomly in urban areas of China and 1050 valid samples were collected in this study. Descriptive statistical analysis methods, structural equation modeling, and Pearson correlation were used to parse the residents’ preference for both UGS types, ecological–social services, and the relevant impact factors. The results showed that: (1) the strongest preference of residents for UGS and their ecological and social services are the attached green space, “beautifying the city”, and “physical and mental relaxation”, respectively; (2) the leading factors for residents’ access to UGS are “age” and “sufficient time”, except for attached green space. The most significant effect on both ecological and social services is the “season” factor. Further, “social gathering” and “exercise” are the services most and least likely to be affected. (3) Future planning of UGS should reinforce construction of attached green space and improve the aesthetics-related ES they provide. Construction of park green space and plaza green space should be enhanced to deal with the aging trend in society. Further, maintaining the existing construction of attached green space and building regional green space are crucial to the sustainability of UGS and its ecological–social services.

Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Green Spaces and Their Equity along Urban–Rural Gradients in the Xi’an Metropolitan Area, China

Urban green spaces (UGSs) are indispensable for providing various ecosystem services (ESs) to society and city-dwellers. The equitable allocation of ESs provided by UGSs is a prerequisite for maintaining urban sustainability and human well-being. However, empirical studies have assessed the dynamics of UGS equity from ES facets, while neglecting to strengthen integrated evaluation indicators and coupled spatially explicit models. A framework was developed in this study to assess the spatio-temporal patterns of ESs provided by UGSs and their equity based on models of the Intelligent Urban Ecosystem Management System, location entropy, and the Gini coefficient. The results indicated that with urban spatial expansion, in each concentric circle, the values of three ES averages were generally the lowest in the megacity (Xi’an), and the values of carbon sequestration and the recreation averages in the medium-sized cities (Baoji and Xianyang) were also lower than in the small-sized city (Tongchuan). The inequity of ESs provided by UGSs was exacerbated from 2000 to 2020 in the Xi’an Metropolitan Area. The ES equity was the worst in Xi’an and the best in Tongchuan. Areas with extremely low CR location entropy occupied 67.01% in 2020. As cities spatially expanded, areas with extremely low ES location entropy generally increased in 2020. Additionally, the zero-value area of the ES Gini coefficient in Xi’an was the largest from 2000 to 2020. The ES Gini values mostly increased in the same concentric circle of each city in 2020, which demonstrates that equity declined. Spatial equity could be improved by diversifying UGS structures, promoting spatial matching between the ES supply and beneficiaries’ demands, and integrating UGSs into any available space in future UGS planning. The findings of the study could offer insights for optimizing the equitable provision of UGS resources and the targeted planning of urban greening.

Impact of the Beijing-Tianjin sandstorm source control project on ecosystem services and an evaluation of economic benefits

<p indent="0mm">The Beijing-Tianjin sandstorm source control project (BTSSCP) is a large and famous ecological construction project with enormous investment that aims to improve and optimize the ecological condition of Beijing-Tianjin and the surrounding areas. Since the implementation of the BTSSCP in 2000, profound changes have occurred in the region regarding land use, vegetation cover, soil, wind and water erosion, and the supply of regional ecosystem services (ESs). Changes in regional ESs are influenced not only by human activities but also by natural factors such as climate change. Distinguishing and quantifying the roles of climate change and land-use change on regional ES changes can better serve sustainable land-use management decisions at the regional and national levels. Additionally, information is needed on the economic benefits caused by sandstorm control and ecological restoration, such as the value change of the regulating ESs since the BTSSCP began, the variation in the spatial patterns of ESs and their integration, and the contribution of sand control and vegetation restoration to regional ES changes. Moreover, a landscape-level ES multifunctionality concept and measurement framework provided deep insight into the spatial supply-benefit relationship of ESs, and this information is crucial for sustainable ecosystem management and land-use planning. In this study, a set of ES indicators that represent ecological provisioning (<italic>n</italic>=2), regulating (<italic>n</italic>=4), and supporting (<italic>n</italic>=2) services at the county scale in the BTSSCP were calculated based on a field survey, Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data, land-use data, meteorological data (i.e., temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and direction) and socioeconomic census data. Then, the ES multifunctionality of each county was assessed using the multiple ES landscape index (MESLI) and the ES Shannon diversity index (ESHDI). Variation partitioning was used to distinguish the contributions of land-use area composition and major climatic conditions (annual average temperature, annual precipitation, and average wind speed) to various ESs, and the MESLI and ESHDI in different periods were measured and compared. Partial least squares path modeling (PLS-PM) was applied to determine the direct and indirect effects of the BTSSCP on the regional ecological supply, ecological regulation, habitat support services and multifunctional indicators of ESs and their changes. The results showed that (1) the implementation of the BTSSCP effectively improved the regulating ESs in Beijing, Tianjin and surrounding areas and promoted the overall improvement of the comprehensive benefits of regional ESs while effectively improving the integration and diversity of ESs in the core areas of wind and sand management. The MESLI increased in 94.8% of all counties in 2015 compared to 2000. (2) Both land-use composition and climatic factors had impacts on the regional ES provisions, but the influence of land use on the regulating and provisioning ESs was significantly higher than that of climatic factors. The direct effect of land use on ES provision, regulation, and support was enhanced, the multifunctionality of regional ESs was dramatically improved, and the role of climatic factors markedly declined as the project proceeded. (3) The economic benefits of the BTSSCP were positive, with a 415300 yuan/km² increase in the content of regulating ESs, and 82.7% of counties had reduced wind erosion after BTSSCP implementation, which indicated that the comprehensive economic benefits of BTSSCP implementation were significant. These results provide a scientific basis for evaluating the benefits of the BTSSCP and serve as a reference for developing new national management strategies.

Spatial patterns in ecosystem services supply and demand in the Jing-Jin-Ji region, China

Spatial patterns in ecosystem services (ES) supply and demand can provide useful visual information for eco-economic management policy. For assessing ES supply and demand on a regional scale, we coupled natural elements with socioeconomic factors and built an integration model involving five types of ES supply, i.e., water conservation, soil conservation, carbon fixation/oxygen release, sand fixation, and air purification , and three types of ES demand, i.e., water resource demand, carbon emission/oxygen consumption, and air pollution control demand. For the case of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, the patterns of ES supply and demand were analyzed by assessing the multi-year average of 2001, 2005, 2010, and 2017. The main results were: (1) An apparent spatial mismatch between ES supply and demand in the study area. Areas with high ES supply capacity were located in the Yanshan Mountains and the Taihang Mountains, and the eastern Bashang Plateau. Areas with high ES demand were mainly located in large and medium-sized cities in the Hebei Plain. (2) The total ES supply capacity could not meet the needs of the study area. The surplus area accounted for 32.93% of the total area and the deficit area for 67.07%. The total ES demand was 2.05 times the total ES supply in the study area. Chengde was the only region with an ES surplus per unit area, and Tianjin had the largest deficit. The ES deficit in the Jing-Jin-Ji region was severe. (3) Based on the surplus-deficit patterns of ES supply-demand, three environmental management zones were suggested, i.e., environmental conservation, restoration, and control zones, and some concrete suggestions and solutions on environmental protection or restoration were elaborated for each zone to mitigate conflicts of ES supply and demand. Key findings will provide a scientific basis for constructing regional ecological compensation mechanisms and the coordinated development of the Jing-Jin-Ji region. • We designed a comprehensive method for assessing ES supply and demand. • There was a spatial mismatch of ES supply and demand among and within geographical units. • The total ES demand was 2.05 times ES supply in the study area. • We propose environmental restoration strategies for different management zones.

Quantifying the Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Ecosystem Services and Exploring the Spatial Differentiation of Driving Factors: a Case Study of Sichuan Basin, China

Exploring the factors that drive the change of ecosystem services (ES) is very important for maintaining ES function and zoning ecological management, especially in the Sichuan Basin area with high spatial heterogeneity such as natural and socio-economic characteristics. Taking the Sichuan Basin in China as an example, the PCA-MGWR model was constructed to explore the temporal and spatial patterns of ES in the Sichuan Basin from 2000 to 2015. The potential driving factors including anthropogenic factors, geomorphological factors, climate factors, and vegetation factors would be analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA). To illustrate the impact of spatial dependence in the data, the multi-scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) technology was selected to explore the spatial differentiation of the impact of these four dimensions on ES to reflect the local differences of ecosystem service driving mechanisms in more detail. The results showed that 1) from the perspective of time series evolution, carbon storage (CS) and soil conservation (SC) in ES in the Sichuan Basin showed an upward trend, while water yield (WY) showed a downward trend; from the perspective of spatial patterns, except the main urban areas of Chengdu and Chongqing, the CS service level of other regions was high; The spatial distribution characteristics of SC services were “low in the middle and high in the periphery”; the high value area of WY service was located in Northeast Sichuan. 2) Among natural factors, elevation (DEM), slope (SLO), NDVI, annual average temperature (TEM), and annual average precipitation (PRE) had a higher contribution rate to ES, while among socio-economic factors, GDP density (GDP), night light (LIG), and population density (POP) had a higher contribution rate to ES, while other factors had a lower contribution rate. 3) Combined with the PCA-MGWR model, we analyzed the comprehensive response and spatial differentiation of driving factors to ES in the Sichuan Basin and explained in detail the influence of anthropogenic factors, geomorphological factors, climatic factors, and vegetation factors and their spatial heterogeneity in ES. It is expected that the spatial differences in the impact degree of different indicators can be considered when formulating the countermeasures of ES in the Sichuan Basin, to provide theoretical support for the implementation of regional ecological management and control.

Enhancing Ecosystem Services in the Agro-Pastoral Transitional Zone Based on Local Sustainable Management: Insights from Duolun County in Northern China

Ecosystem and associated ecosystem services (ESs) in the agro-pastoral transitional zone of northern China (APTZNC) are sensitive to climate change and human activities. Essential to designing targeted policy interventions toward achieving sustainability in the APTZNC is a comprehensive understanding of the spatiotemporal changes in ESs and their drivers. This study identified the spatiotemporal changes in six ESs in Duolun County from 2000 to 2017. The impacts of drivers—temperature, precipitation, wind speed, vegetation cover (FVC), land use/cover (LULC), soil type, altitude, and slope—on the changes in the ESs in the county and its ecological production zones were then explored. The results indicated that the six ESs improved during the study period. The drivers influencing changes in ESs over time exhibited similarities across regions. Although FVC contributed to improvements in the food supply, grass production, carbon sequestration, and soil wind erosion (SLwind), it also reduced water yield, which may exacerbate the water shortage in arid and semi-arid areas. In regions where the ecology was in the recovery phase, especially in slope farmland, the inhibition of soil water erosion (SLwater) by FVC was easily offset by the higher SLwater potential from increased precipitation. The decrease in wind speed improved the regional ESs, whereas the increase in temperature posed a threat to SLwind. The drivers affecting the spatial patterns of ESs varied among zones. Across the three zones, the greater influential drivers of ESs were FVC and LULC. The impacts of topographic drivers and soil type on the distribution of ESs should also be noted in the agro-zone and agro-pastoral zone, respectively. Our study advocated that ES management should be adjusted to local conditions, and differentiated planning policies should be implemented in line with the ecological characteristics in the APTZNC, which will contribute to regional ecological sustainable development.

Dynamic characteristics and synergistic effects of ecosystem services under climate change scenarios on the Qinghai\u2013Tibet Plateau

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) supplies many ecosystem services (ESs) that maintain local and global pan-Asian populations and ecosystems. The effects of climate change on ES provision in the QTP will have far-reaching impacts on the region and the many downstream ecosystems and countries that depend on ESs from the "Third Pole". This study undertook a systematic assessment of ES provision, trade-offs and synergies between four ESs (raw material provision, water yield, soil retention, and carbon storage) under future climate scenarios (representative concentration pathway). The results show that: (1) the total amount of the four ESs on the QTP is predicted to increase from 1980 to 2100 for three climate change scenarios. (2) The spatial pattern of ESs on the QTP will not change significantly in the future, and the grassland and forest ESs in the central and southern regions are predicted to increase significantly. (3) The synergistic interactions among ESs were generally consistent at three spatial scales (10 km (pixel), county and watershed scales), but with more significant synergistic effects at the watershed scale. This demonstrates the necessity for the examination of scale-dependent ES dynamics and interactions. This study will supply a reference for further research on long-term ES assessments, especially the dynamic ES changes and the spatial scale dependency of the ES interactions, and provide evidence-based strategies for formulating ecosystem management on the QTP under climate change.

Exploring ecosystem services trade-offs using the Bayesian belief network model for ecological restoration decision-making: A case study in Guizhou Province, China

• A Bayesian belief network (BBN) model is developed to determine the driving factors regarding trade-off changes. • The multi-scenario scheme of ES optimization is obtained by visualizing the key state of key variables. • Suggestions for ecological restoration were given, and a good way is to adjust the combination of the key state of key variables. The relationships between trade-off and synergy in ecosystem services (ESs) is essential for eco-environmental management and restoration in Karst regions, and many researchers have focused heavily on this. However, to date, and to the best of our knowledge, we still lack an adequate understanding of the driving factors of relationship changes and the optimization of the spatial pattern of ESs in this region. In this study, a Bayesian belief network (BBN) model was developed to link three major ESs—net primary productivity (NPP), water yield (WY), and soil conservation (SC)—and determine the driving factors regarding trade-off changes. Furthermore, the multi-scenario scheme of ES optimization was obtained and suggestions are provided in this paper for ecological restoration and decision-making in Guizhou Province, China. The results revealed that the relationships of regional ESs were mainly synergistic, but the synergistic relationship was weakening, accompanied by a trade-off trend during the study period. The area ratios with an enhancement of trade-offs in NPP and SC, SC and WY, and NPP and WY were 17.9%, 28.6%, and 26.6%, respectively, which indicates a significant uncoordinated changes between WY and the two other ESs. The ES relationships in this region are underpinned by multiple factors. Among them, water resources are the primary natural factor that restricts the concerted development of ESs, and the afforestation area (AA) is the main human factor that lowers the trade-offs among ESs. The superiority and distribution scope of ecological restoration were recognized through a multi-scenario analysis of the BBN model. In terms of the superiority of ecological restoration, it was concluded that scenario 3 > scenario 2 > scenario 1; in terms of the restoration area, it was scenario 1 > scenario 2 > scenario 3. Duyun City, in the south of Guizhou Province, as well as surrounding counties, were regions with a high probability of trade-off occurrences, and they could be regions for future ES optimization. Based on the driving factors and the occurrence probability of trade-offs, the ecological restoration area was identified, and it was found the ESs trade-off in this region can be decreased by adjusting a combination of the key variables’ key states. This study provides insight towards achieving a mechanistic understanding and spatial expression of the driving forces underpinning trade-offs/synergies, in turn ensuring the accurate implementation of ecological restoration and the effective management of karst ecosystems.

An urban hierarchy-based approach integrating ecosystem services into multiscale sustainable land use planning: The case of China

Understanding how to manage ecosystem services (ESs) is crucial for sustainable regional development. The multiscale ES assessment can provide a new perspective for land use planning. We assessed the spatiotemporal patterns of multiple ESs in the three largest urban agglomerations of China at different levels: Beijing−Tianjin−Hebei, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Pearl River Delta from 1980 to 2018. The urban hierarchy extends from the city proper to metropolitan regions and then urban agglomeration levels. Associating with the trade-off relationships and influencing factors of ESs, a new methodological framework was proposed to enhance the ESs by developing improved land use scenarios at different urban hierarchical levels. The major results showed that: (1) the spatiotemporal patterns of ESs varied at different levels and not all ESs increased with increasing spatial scales; (2) the ES relationships at small scales did not apply to the broader scales and even led to diametrically opposing outcomes; (3) socioeconomic factors were the main drivers at the low level, whereas natural factors became the main drivers at the high level; and (4) more sustainable policy-combination scenarios were also place-based and scale-dependent, for example, strengthening intensive utilization of developed lands at the city proper level, implementing agroforestry intercropping at the metropolitan level, and facilitating forest conservation practices at the urban agglomeration level. It indicated that a multiscale approach should be considered when managing ESs. The scale-explicit land use strategies can help decision makers and planners to enhance the ESs and landscape sustainability more effectively and avoid misleading guidance.

Determining critical thresholds of ecological restoration based on ecosystem service index: A case study in the Pingjiang catchment in southern China

Considering that the degradation of ecological systems is an urgent environmental challenge, promoting multiple ecosystem services (ES) through ecological restoration has recently become more critical. However, the complicated interactions among multiple ES are not fully considered in ecological restoration planning and management, which prevents simultaneous improvements to environmental and human welfare. In this study, the spatio-temporal variations of multiple ES and their interactions were investigated in the Pingjiang catchment, which used to suffer severe soil erosion and has been the target of the ecological restoration projects. The results showed that five individual ES were heterogeneously distributed, and each individual ES and their overall benefits have increased with the implementation of ecological restoration (except for water yield). However, significantly negative correlations existed in over half of ten ES pairs, and the trade-offs among the five individual ES also increased. Through redundancy analysis, the forest proportion (FP) was identified as the major socio-ecological factor that determines multiple ES patterns; therefore, determining the appropriate FP for restoration areas is important for regulating the supply of ES. The constraint effects of FP on each ES and their overall benefits and trade-offs were examined, and inconsistent thresholds were detected for some relationships. Thus, a comprehensive index (ES index) that incorporates the overall trade-offs was proposed to reflect the complicated interactions among multiple ES and the preferences of different stakeholder groups. The constraint effect of FP on the ES index was explored, and the threshold values detected in the hump-shaped curve of the constraint lines provided references for determining the appropriate FP. This study established an integrated land use management framework by proposing a comprehensive ES index and determining its critical thresholds through the constraint line method. The results provide insights for the better planning and targeting of ecological restoration and land use management projects worldwide.

Trade-offs between local farmers' demand for ecosystem services and ecological restoration of the Loess Plateau, China

Knowledge of ecosystem services (ES) supply and demand is highly important in formulating an effective and sustainable environmental policy. Since the 1980s, the Chinese government has implemented a series of nature conservation policies in the Loess Plateau, which has experienced heavy losses of soil and water. Based on this background, studies of ES supply in the Loess Plateau have received much attention, but local farmers’ demand for ES have been neglected. In the hilly and gully catchment of the Loess Plateau, we selected indicators, including key provisioning services (grain production and livestock), key regulating services (soil protection and water conservation) and local farmers’ income derived from ES, and constructed the supply and demand index of ES to examine changes from 1938 to 2010. The results show that the supply pattern of ES at our site was dominated by the government, especially after 1985. In recent years, the most concerning demand for ES by local farmers shifted from direct provisioning and regulating services to ES-related incomes. However, household surveys showed that the economic demand of most farmers could not be satisfied by the incomes derived from ES (e.g., livestock sales and subsidies from the Grain for Green policy), and a growing number of local farmers have left the catchment to become migrant workers, thus threatening the social stability of local villages. For future development of the Loess Plateau, the benefits of ES improvement should be offered more widely to local farmers who are the main forces of ecological restoration and ES sustainability.