Binary Digits Research Articles

Single laser based novel wavelength shift keying scheme for ground to satellite bidirectional links

Abstract Laser communication in space is gaining more recognition due to its ability to provide a much broader and unregulated data transmission capacity compared to traditional radio frequency systems, while also significantly decreasing the size, power requirements, and weight of the communication system. In this work, a novel technique for the generation of a wavelength shift keying (WSK) signal for the bidirectional transmission of 10 Gbps data between the ground station and low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite is presented. Our proposed scheme requires a single laser source to transmit WSK signal, that generally requires two wavelength sources to transmit the binary data bits. Furthermore, the scheme allows us to remodulate the optical signal received at the LEO satellite for downlink signal transmission. Therefore, the requirement of a laser source at the LEO satellite is eliminated, achieving the much desirable goals of low power consumption, weight and cost. The free space optical (FSO) channel is modelled using the gamma-gamma channel model. The performance of the proposed link is also compared with a conventional On-Off keying (OOK) based modulation scheme by using bit-error-rate (BER) as the performance metric.

Quantum Computing in Electronics: A New Era of Ultra-Fast Processing

Quantum computing has been predicted to radically change the electronics industry, especially by implementing ultra-fast processing. Different from other types of computers, quantum computers use qubits instead of binary bits since they can be in multiple states at once because of superposition and entanglement. This creates the ability to perform various calculations simultaneously thus introducing exponential increases in the processing capability hence the efficiency of quantum computers. The applicability of the findings to electronics is extensive since it can be applied in cryptography, artificial intelligence, and analysis of other complex data. Also, it is necessary to point out the potential for improving efficiency in the use of energy in computing systems due to progress in the area of quantum computing and the possible extension of prospects for miniaturization and the search for new materials. Though there are serious problems that are still unsolved, including qubit stability and error correction, continuous research and development works have the potential to solve those issues, and thus bring about a revolutionary change in the electronics of the future. In this paper, an evaluation of quantum computing in electronics is presented, with a focus on the effects that will be brought about and the relevant fields. This paper aims at giving an evaluation of quantum computing in electronics the effects that will be realized and the fields that will be impacted.

Blind image authentication using singular value decomposition with enhanced robustness by augmenting hamming code

Singular value decomposition (SVD) based image authentication has widespread applications for digital media protection including forensic and medical domains due to the high stability and robustness of singular values under small perturbations. However, most of these techniques are non-blind and have high redundancies for the extraction of secret data. The proposed scheme employs a blind extraction strategy by utilizing the intrinsic relationship of coefficient pairs of the U matrix of the host image blocks. This relationship is utilized to hide a secret binary bit after computing a threshold value in constant time. The host image underwent block-wise decomposition and hash-based randomization of blocks, followed by block-wise SVD for embedding secret bits in the U matrix. Hamming coded watermark is embedded for high precision extraction under active attacks. High imperceptibility and strong robustness are observed under attacks when tested across general purpose as well as image datasets and the system outperforms many existing works. Experimental observation shows the average PSNR between the host and marked image and average NCC between embedded and extracted watermark to be 36.98 dB and 0.999 respectively for the SIPI dataset whereas 52.7 dB and 1 respectively for the X-Ray dataset. The system exhibited high robustness under Salt-and-pepper noise (SAPN), Gaussian Noise (GAUN), Cropping (CRP), Median Filtering (MF), Histogram Equalization (HEQ), and Jpeg Compression (JPC) with average NCC values of 0.998, 1, 0.932, 0.999 and 0.967 respectively for X-Ray dataset. The time complexity O (M × N) is observed for both embedding and extraction algorithms for a host image of size M × N.

Jerk limited continuous tool path generation for flexible systems in non-cartesian coordinate systems

Inspired by computer numerical control (CNC) technology and drastic changes in the world of electronics and microcontrollers, the idea of using non-cartesian coordinate system for CNC machines became a topic of interest. Non-cartesian coordinate systems provide freedom of movement in systems with large working spaces where high dimensional accuracy is not a prime concern. Applications of such systems can be found in murals, where a painting is applied to a large wall of any arbitrary build material. In the present paper, a new design was introduced to automate the process of drawing murals on large surfaces. The proposed mechanism utilized chain and sprocket to overcome the size limitations of traditionally available x-y tables. In addition to that, the developed mechanism does not utilize the common robust structures used in the conventional CNC systems and the tool motion is created using flexible arms that are not heavily constrained. The effect of systems unwanted vibration has been eliminated using continuous trajectory and kinematic profiles. Parametric curve interpolation algorithms for trajectory planning were implemented to increase the flexibility of drawing complex curves. Parametric curves such as B-spline and non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) were employed to generate a jerk limited trajectory for motion control and extraction of kinematic profiles. Such trajectory constrains the jerk of the system and guarantees a smooth motion free of feed-rate fluctuations. Compared to other methods available for extracting the kinematic profiles, jerk limited method decreases the travel time and trajectory error. Ultimately, motion commands were produced by using kinematic profiles and the second order Taylor interpolator. STM32746ZG card was used as the main processor and two stepper motors controlled by a Bit Pattern interpolation algorithm were utilized to drive the proposed mechanism. The input pulses of stepper motors were stored as binary bits and transmitted to drivers in real-time. The feedback was also evaluated by two rotary encoders, placed at the end of the motors’ shafts. Encoder data were acquired and transmitted using a TCP/IP protocol to guarantee zero data loss during the transmission.

Quantum-based PRNG for image encryption: a comprehensive study

Quantum computing, grounded in the principles of quantum mechanics, has ushered in a new era of intriguing possibilities and fresh scientific insights. In this document, we present an innovative algorithm tailored for the encryption and decryption of images. This algorithm harnesses the quasi-probability values extracted from each state within the quantum system, represented as | ψ 〉 . These numerical values are seamlessly integrated with conventional data to facilitate image encryption and decryption processes. Our methodology undergoes comprehensive validation and evaluation through extensive simulations performed on the IBM Qiskit Aer simulator. We subject the generated numerical sequence to rigorous statistical scrutiny using the NIST SP 800-22 suite, ensuring its authenticity and reliability. Employing a quantum system comprising 3 qubits and uniform rotation gates, our algorithm produces a dataset consisting of 41,943,040 binary digits. Additionally, we conduct a thorough assessment encompassing both visual and statistical analyses to ascertain the effectiveness and robustness of our proposed algorithm. Furthermore, we emphasize the critical importance of achieving a quasi-probability error rate of 10 − 6 for real-world implementation, highlighting the practical viability and scalability of our approach. Through comparative analysis and meticulous examination of correlation patterns, our study provides invaluable insights into the distinctive characteristics and efficacy of our encryption scheme.

Micromagnetic analysis of magnetic vortex dynamics for reservoir computing

Reservoir computing (RC) has generated significant interest for its ability to reduce computational costs compared to traditional neural networks. The performance of the RC element is quantified by its memory capacity (MC) and prediction capability. In this study, we utilize micromagnetic simulations to investigate a magnetic vortex based on a permalloy ferromagnetic layer and its dynamics in RC. The nonlinear dynamics of the vortex core (VC), driven by continuous oscillating magnetic fields and binary digit data as spin-polarized current pulses, are analyzed. The highest MC observed is 4.1, corresponding to the nonlinear VC dynamics. Additionally, the prediction capability is evaluated using the Nonlinear Auto-Regressive Moving Average 2 task, demonstrating a normalized mean squared error of 0.0241 highlighting the time-series data prediction performance of the vortex as a reservoir.

Random laser ablated tags for anticounterfeiting purposes and towards physically unclonable functions

Anticounterfeiting tags affixed to products offer a practical solution to combat counterfeiting. To be effective, these tags must be economical, capable of ultrafast production, mass-producible, easy to authenticate, and automatable. We present a universal laser ablation technique that rapidly generates intrinsic, randomly distributed craters (in under a second) on laser-sensitive materials using a nanosecond pulsed infrared laser. The laser and scanning line parameters are balanced to produce randomly distributed craters. The tag patterns demonstrate high randomness, which is analyzed using pattern recognition algorithms and root mean square error deviation. The optical image information of the tag is digitized with a fixed bit uniformity of 0.5 without employing any debiasing algorithm. The efficacy of tags for anticounterfeiting is presented by securing the challenge associated with each tag. Statistical NIST tests are successfully performed on responses generated from both single and multiple tags, demonstrating the true randomness of the sequence of binary digits. The single(multiple) tag(s) achieved an actual encoding capacity of approximately 10391 (10518) and a low false rate (both positive and negative) on the order of 10−58 (10−50). Our findings introduce a laser-based method for anticounterfeiting tag generation, allowing for ultrafast and straightforward product processing with minimal fabrication and tag cost.

Kempner-like Harmonic Series

Inspired by a question asked on the list mathfun, we revisit Kempner-like series, i.e., harmonic sums ∑ ′ 1 / n where the integers n in the summation have “restricted” digits. First we give a short proof that lim k → ∞ ( ∑ s 2 ( n ) = k 1 / n ) = 2 log 2 , where s 2 ( n ) is the sum of the binary digits of the integer n. Then we give a generalization that addresses the case where s 2 ( n ) is replaced with s b ( n ) , the sum of b-ary digits in base b: we prove that lim k → ∞ ∑ s b ( n ) = k 1 / n = ( 2 log b ) / ( b − 1 ) . Finally we indicate that other generalizations could be studied: the sum of digits in base 2 could be replaced with, e.g., the function a 11 ( n ) of—possibly overlapping—11 in the base-2 expansion of n, for which one can obtain lim k → ∞ ∑ a 11 ( n ) = k 1 / n = 4 log 2 .

Cryptography with stochastic photons

Quantum cryptography protocols are based on the use of quantum objects with at least two orthogonal states, for example, the polarization states of a photon. We propose a completely different cryptography protocol using a stochastic flow of single photons. Our method is based on the stochastic decay of an ensemble of radioactive nuclei randomly emitting a stream of γ-photons. We have experimentally demonstrated the transmission of classical information containing binary bits. Reading this information requires precise knowledge of the repetition rate of its sending. Otherwise, it is impossible to make the transmitted information visible, since it will be lost in the noise.

Color Image Encryption Based on an Evolutionary Codebook and Chaotic Systems.

Encryption of images is an important method that can effectively improve the security and privacy of crucial image data. Existing methods generally encrypt an image with a combination of scrambling and encoding operations. Currently, many applications require highly secure results for image encryption. New methods that can achieve improved randomness for both the scrambling and encoding processes in encryption are thus needed to further enhance the security of a cipher image. This paper proposes a new method that can securely encrypt color images. As the first step of the proposed method, a complete bit-level operation is utilized to scramble the binary bits in a color image to a full extent. For the second step, the bits in the scrambled image are processed with a sweeping operation to improve the encryption security. In the final step of encryption, a codebook that varies with evolutionary operations based on several chaotic systems is utilized to encrypt the partially encrypted image obtained in the second step. Experimental results on benchmark color images suggest that this new approach can securely encrypt color images and generate cipher images that remain secure under different types of attacks. The proposed approach is compared with several other state-of-the-art encryption approaches and the results show that it can achieve improved encryption security for cipher images. Experimental results thus suggest that this new approach can possibly be utilized practically in applications where color images need to be encrypted for content protection.

Design and Implementation of 1-bit Full Subtractor Using FinFET

Abstract: A full subtractor is a digital combinational circuit that performs subtraction involving three bits, namely A (minuend), B (subtrahend), and Bin (borrow-in) . It accepts three inputs: A (minuend), B (subtrahend) and a Bin (borrow bit) and it produces two outputs: D (difference) and Bout (borrow out). Unlike a half adder, which adds only two binary digits and produces a sum and carry, a full adder considers an additional carry input from a previous less significant bit addition. The full adder's design includes three inputs: A, B, and Cin (carry-in), and two outputs: Sum (sum) and Cout (carry-out). The sum output Sum is derived by XOR-ing the three inputs, while the carry-out Cout is obtained by considering the majority function of the inputs. This means Cout is set when any two or more of the three inputs are high (logical 1). Full subtractors are fundamental components in the construction of arithmetic logic units (ALUs), binary adders, and other computational circuits in digital systems, enabling the handling of multi-bit binary addition by cascading multiple full adders.

Encryption of messages by the sum of a real variable functions.

The article proposes a cryptosystem with symmetric keys, where the keys are functions of a real variable. These functions can be either continuous or discrete and must satisfy certain constraints. The number of key functions is determined by the number of binary digits that encode a character in the ASCII table. Each binary digit has its own key function. The cipher of a character is represented by a one-dimensional array of real numbers. These numbers are obtained by summing the key functions, which correspond to “1” in the ASCII code of the character. The amplitudes of these functions are random and unknown to the receiving party. Decryption is a multi-level process, in which integral disproportion functions are calculated at each level. To increase the cryptographic strength, the encryption/decryption process involves a permutation of the key-functions according to a secret scheme agreed upon by both parties. Computer simulation has demonstrated the high cryptographic resistance of the proposed system to the determination of the coefficients within the key functions, as well as to the rearrangement of the key functions themselves. It is shown that adjacent identical symbols in an encrypted message have different ciphers, which also complicates hacking the system.

Secure Stego Method to Protect SMS Transmission

A novel method of message steganography will be proposed. The method will use a digital speech file as a covering media. The 32 binary bits of each speech sample will be used for data hiding, using these bits will increase the hiding capacity, and changing them will not much affect the sample value, thus the quality of the stego file will be always high. The proposed method will use a private key to protect the hidden message, the protection will be applied by shuffling the rows of the speech binary matrix using the contents of the generated indices key, The induces key will be generated by running a chaotic logistic map model using the values of the chaotic parameters included in the private key. The proposed method will be tested and implemented using various messages, the quality, sensitivity and speed of the proposed method will be analyzed to prove the enhancements provided by the proposed method.

Dynamic Manipulation of Chiral Domain Wall Spacing for Advanced Spintronic Memory and Logic Devices.

Nanoscopic magnetic domain walls (DWs), via their absence or presence, enable highly interesting binary data bits. The current-controlled, high-speed, synchronous motion of sequences of chiral DWs in magnetic nanoconduits induced by current pulses makes possible high-performance spintronic memory and logic devices. The closer the spacing between neighboring DWs in an individual conduit or nanowire, the higher the data density of the device, but at the same time, the more difficult it is to read the bits. Here, we show how the DW spacing can be dynamically varied to facilitate reading for otherwise closely packed bits. In the first method, the current density is increased in portions of the conduit that, thereby, locally speeds up the DWs, decompressing them and making them easier to read. In the second method, a localized bias current is used to compress and decompress the DW spacing. Both of these methods are demonstrated experimentally and validated by micromagnetic simulations. DW compression and decompression rates as high as 88% are shown. These methods can increase the density with which DWs can be packed in future DW-based spintronic devices by more than an order of magnitude.

Supersymmetry Via EDM (Electric Dipole Moment)

The article begins by mentioning the accepted correlation between Albert Einstein’s relativistic equations, as well as James Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic waves, with the Prandtl-Glauert equations for fluid flow. This equation-free mention nevertheless ends with 180° ΔO = + => - (180 Degree Change in Orientation Equals Positive Becomes Negative). Of course, it also means negative can become positive: 180° ΔO = - => +. Using this article’s new equations, the Electric Dipole Moment is introduced and the charges of the quarks composing a neutron are transformed. EDM’s undetectability is explained from the perspective of a hypothetical someone who doesn’t accept the Big Bang but believes the universe is literally infinite and eternal. Then quantum spin of matter particles is discussed, and extended to astronomy’s black holes, in terms of photons and gravitons not being elementary force-carrying particles but being in possession of EDM. The photon-graviton interaction producing quantum spin is proposed as electromagnetic and gravitational vectors in a figure that might be called “Vector-Tensor-Scalar Geometry”, as well as being related to quaternions plus the Higgs boson and field. Then the article returns to black holes, showing how the inability of light to escape them leads to a 4-dimensional space-time: via binary digits or base 2 mathematics, Mobius bands, figure-8 Klein bottles, and Wick rotation. The electric potential of photons and gravitons is then interpreted not strictly as a neutron-identical Electric Dipole Moment but as a vast array of pulses sharing similarities with modern computers and electronics – the binary digits of the previous sentence. As a consequence of the electric force-carriers bringing them into existence, particles of matter and antimatter are symmetrical with bosons in the sense that every boson or fermion is, at its most fundamental level, composed of binary digits. Imaginary numbers are essential to quantum mechanics, and this article connects the imaginary numbers of Wick rotation to the nature of time. Therefore, the words here are not painting a classical picture of space-time. The 1’s and 0’s of binary digits are compatible with quantum mechanics and may be referred to as the Hidden Variables which Einstein advocated to complete quantum physics, and to give its calculations an exactness which would bring a hidden order to its chaotic randomness and superficial uncertainty. If the universe can be quantized and viewed as comprised of infinitesimal ones and zeros, how could it not obey quantum physics? And if those ones and zeros are all ultimately connected by Quantum Gravity, waves and particles could never be separated but wave-particle duality would rule. To finish, many thanks to Albert Einstein for laying the foundations of this article 105 years ago when he published a paper titled “Do gravitational fields play an essential role in the structure of elementary particles?” Immediately before submission for publication, a few topics were added to this article - dark matter, precession, the Hodge conjecture, and the Riemann hypothesis.

Bistable magnetic nanowires: A new approach to non-volatile memory with single readout and automatic deletion

A novel approach for a non-volatile destructive readout memory application using bistable magnetic nanowire arrays is presented. The encoded information is stored as binary 1 and 0 by groups of NWs magnetized in the positive and negative states, respectively. We leverage the naturally occurring switching field distribution of the NW array and a tailored alternating decreasing magnetic field to program remanent magnetic states. To retrieve the information, the measured remagnetization curve exhibits a star-like behavior with jumps and plateaus and its derivative converts this information to a binary-type format. Two encoding and readout schemes are proposed and validated: binary bits and barcodes. For each case, the implementation and optimization procedures are illustrated, along with the required processing to obtain a useful readout signal. This strategy holds potential for non-volatile memory applications in which the stored information is erased during reading and can be reused indefinitely.Graphical abstract

Investigation on the Significance of Incorporating Quantum Computing Technology into the Prevailing Curriculum

In conventional data processing, the use of binary bits is required. Online education is most beneficial to those who are already comfortable with technology. It's possible that classical mechanics will be replaced by quantum mechanics in near future. The processing speed of quantum computers is million times faster than that of traditional computer. Qubits are quantum bits. In the quantum technology, superposition and entanglement are important concepts. Traditional computers can benefit from the complex computational problems that are solved by quantum computing. Astrology, cryptography, and weather forecasting can all be simplified using quantum technology. Quantum theory should be studied by students majoring in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics related fields. This paper discusses the advantages, applications, and tactics that can be used to enhance graduate and undergraduate courses in this rapidly expanding field of work.

Quantum Computing

Abstract: The revolutionary technology known as quantum computing has the potential to completely transform several industries, including material research, medicine development, optimization, and cryptography. Quantum computers use the ideas of quantum mechanics to harness the power of quantum bits, or qubits, in contrast to classical computers, which function using binary digits, or bits. These qubits, which exist in a superposition of states, allow quantum computers to operate at a computational rate never before possible, potentially tackling challenging issues that are beyond the capabilities of classical systems

Printed smart devices for anti-counterfeiting allowing precise identification with household equipment

Counterfeiting has become a serious global problem, causing worldwide losses and disrupting the normal order of society. Physical unclonable functions are promising hardware-based cryptographic primitives, especially those generated by chemical processes showing a massive challenge-response pair space. However, current chemical-based physical unclonable function devices typically require complex fabrication processes or sophisticated characterization methods with only binary (bit) keys, limiting their practical applications and security properties. Here, we report a flexible laser printing method to synthesize unclonable electronics with high randomness, uniqueness, and repeatability. Hexadecimal resistive keys and binary optical keys can be obtained by the challenge with an ohmmeter and an optical microscope. These readout methods not only make the identification process available to general end users without professional expertise, but also guarantee device complexity and data capacity. An adopted open-source deep learning model guarantees precise identification with high reliability. The electrodes and connection wires are directly printed during laser writing, which allows electronics with different structures to be realized through free design. Meanwhile, the electronics exhibit excellent mechanical and thermal stability. The high physical unclonable function performance and the widely accessible readout methods, together with the flexibility and stability, make this synthesis strategy extremely attractive for practical applications.

Weyl Sums over Integers with Digital Restrictions

We estimate Weyl sums over the integers with sum of binary digits either fixed or restricted by some congruence condition. In our proofs, we use ideas that go back to a paper by Banks, Conflitti, and the first author (2002). Moreover, we apply the “main conjecture” on the Vinogradov mean value theorem established by Bourgain, Demeter, and Guth (2016) and Wooley (2016, 2019). We use our result to give an estimate of the discrepancy of point sets defined by the values of polynomials at arguments having the sum of binary digits restricted in different ways.