Uropathogenic Escherichia Coli Pathogenesis Research Articles

Peptidoglycan endopeptidase MepM of uropathogenic Escherichia coli contributes to competitive fitness during urinary tract infections

BackgroundUrinary tract infections (UTIs) are common bacterial infections, primarily caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), leading to significant health issues and economic burden. Although antibiotics have been effective in treating UPEC infections, the rise of antibiotic-resistant strains hinders their efficacy. Hence, identifying novel bacterial targets for new antimicrobial approaches is crucial. Bacterial factors required for maintaining the full virulence of UPEC are the potential target. MepM, an endopeptidase in E. coli, is involved in the biogenesis of peptidoglycan, a major structure of bacterial envelope. Given that the bacterial envelope confronts the hostile host environment during infections, MepM’s function could be crucial for UPEC’s virulence. This study aims to explore the role of MepM in UPEC pathogenesis.ResultsMepM deficiency significantly impacted UPEC’s survival in urine and within macrophages. Moreover, the deficiency hindered the bacillary-to-filamentous shape switch which is known for aiding UPEC in evading phagocytosis during infections. Additionally, UPEC motility was downregulated due to MepM deficiency. As a result, the mepM mutant displayed notably reduced fitness in causing UTIs in the mouse model compared to wild-type UPEC.ConclusionsThis study provides the first evidence of the vital role of peptidoglycan endopeptidase MepM in UPEC’s full virulence for causing UTIs. MepM’s contribution to UPEC pathogenesis may stem from its critical role in maintaining the ability to resist urine- and immune cell-mediated killing, facilitating the morphological switch, and sustaining motility. Thus, MepM is a promising candidate target for novel antimicrobial strategies.

Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase of uropathogenic Escherichia coli inhibits caspase-1-dependent pyroptosis facilitating urinary tract infection

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the most common causative agent of urinary tract infection (UTI). UPEC invades bladder epithelial cells (BECs) via fusiform vesicles, escapes into the cytosol, and establishes biofilm-like intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs). Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase (NDK) is secreted by pathogenic bacteria to enhance virulence. However, whether NDK is involved in UPEC pathogenesis remains unclear. Here, we find that the lack of ndk impairs the colonization of UPEC CFT073 in mouse bladders and kidneys owing to the impaired ability of UPEC to form IBCs. Furthermore, we demonstrate that NDK inhibits caspase-1-dependent pyroptosis by consuming extracellular ATP, preventing superficial BEC exfoliation, and promoting IBC formation. UPEC utilizes the reactive oxygen species (ROS) sensor OxyR to indirectly activate the regulator integration host factor, which then directly activates ndk expression in response to intracellular ROS. Here, we reveal a signaling transduction pathway that UPEC employs to inhibit superficial BEC exfoliation, thus facilitating acute UTI.

Raising the alarm: fosfomycin resistance associated with non-susceptible inner colonies imparts no fitness cost to the primary bacterial uropathogen.

While fosfomycin resistance is rare, the observation of non-susceptible subpopulations among clinical Escherichia coli isolates is a common phenomenon during antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) in American and European clinical labs. Previous evidence suggests that mutations eliciting this phenotype are of high biological cost to the pathogen during infection, leading to current recommendations of neglecting non-susceptible colonies during AST. Here, we report that the most common route to fosfomycin resistance, as well as novel routes described in this work, does not impair virulence in uropathogenic E. coli, the major cause of urinary tract infections, suggesting a re-evaluation of current susceptibility guidelines is warranted.

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli biofilms

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common infectious diseases, with a global annual incidence of ~175 million cases. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the major cause of UTI (>80%) and increasingly associated with rising antibiotic resistance. UPEC form biofilms during infection of the urinary tract, either on the luminal surface of the bladder, intracellularly within bladder superficial epithelial cells, or on the surface of indwelling catheters. This lifestyle of sessile growth promotes enhanced resistance, persistence and increased rates of recurrent UTI. UPEC employ a range of virulence factors to form biofilms, including fimbrial adhesins for attachment and autotransporters to promote cell-to-cell aggregation. In addition, UPEC biofilms are encased in an extracellular matrix comprised of proteins such as curli amyloid fibres and polysaccharides such as cellulose, which together form a hydrating glue that provides structural support for the biofilm and protects its component cells. Here, we describe the key features of UPEC biofilms and their importance for UPEC pathogenesis of the urinary tract.

Plasmid parB contributes to uropathogenic Escherichia coli colonization in vivo by acting on biofilm formation and global gene regulation.

The endogenous plasmid pUTI89 harbored by the uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) strain UTI89 plays an important role in the acute stage of infection. The partitioning gene parB is important for stable inheritance of pUTI89. However, the function of partitioning genes located on the plasmid in pathogenesis of UPEC still needs to be further investigated. In the present study, we observed that disruption of the parB gene leads to a deficiency in biofilm formation in vitro. Moreover, in a mixed infection with the wild type strain and the parB mutant, in an ascending UTI mouse model, the mutant displayed a lower bacterial burden in the bladder and kidneys, not only at the acute infection stage but also extending to 72 hours post infection. However, in the single infection test, the reduced colonization ability of the parB mutant was only observed at six hpi in the bladder, but not in the kidneys. The colonization capacity in vivo of the parB-complemented strain was recovered. qRT-PCR assay suggested that ParB could be a global regulator, influencing the expression of genes located on both the endogenous plasmid and chromosome, while the gene parA or the operon parAB could not. Our study demonstrates that parB contributes to the virulence of UPEC by influencing biofilm formation and proposes that the parB gene of the endogenous plasmid could regulate gene expression globally.

Phylogenetic groups, serogroups and virulence factors of uropathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from patients with urinary tract infection in Baghdad, Iraq.

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is divided into different phylogenetic groups that differ in their antibiotic resistance patterns, serogroups and pathogenicity. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of phylogenetic groups of UPEC isolates and their relationship with serogroups and virulence factors in patients with UTIs. Of the 412 urine samples tested a total of 150 UPEC were isolated and confirmed with PCR using 16S rRNA gene. Antibiotic resistance of the isolates was tested using disk diffusion method and the isolates were divided into phylogenetic groups by the quadruplex PCR method. The prevalence of serogroups and virulence genes were investigated using multiplex PCR. 87 (58%) of the isolates belonged to phylogroup B2. Virulence genes fimH (95.3%), aer (49.3%) and serogroups O8 (22.3%), O25 (21.5%) showed the highest prevalence. The lowest drug resistance was observed against imipenem (4.6%) and meropenem (3.3%). The prevalence of multidrug-resistant and extended-spectrum beta-lactamases isolates were 60% and 61.3%, respectively. We also found a significant relationship between phylogenetic groups, serogroups and virulence factors among our isolates. The high abundance of phylogenetic group B2, serogroups O8 and O25, and virulence genes fimH and aer indicate their importance in the pathogenesis of UPEC in this country.

YciR, a Specific 3'-Phosphodiesterase, Plays a Role in the Pathogenesis of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli CFT073.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs), with the characteristics of recurrence and resistance to antibiotics due to misuse, remain a common health and economic issue for patients. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), which is capable of evading the immune response by forming intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs) in the cytoplasm of bladder epithelial cells (BECs) after invasion, has been shown to be the prevailing cause of UTIs. Cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) is a small molecule responsible for eliciting the innate immune response of the host only if it has not been degraded by some phosphodiesterases (PDEs), such as YciR. The relationship between YciR and c-di-GMP levels in UPEC is inconclusive. In this study, we investigated the gene expression profile of UPEC in BECs and identified yciR as an upregulated gene. Western blot revealed that YciR enhanced the virulence of UPEC by inhibiting the phosphorylation of NF-κB. The expression of yciR could be repressed by HupB in a directly binding manner. We identified YciR, a novel PDE, and defined its possible function in innate immune evasion. We also demonstrated that YciR is an HupB-dependent PDE that degrades c-di-GMP and that a low concentration of c-di-GMP might make NF-κB less phosphorylated, thereby reducing the host’s pro-inflammatory response. This is the first time that YciR has been identified as a virulence factor in the pathogenesis of UPEC. These findings further increase our understanding of the pathogenesis of UPEC and provide a theoretical basis for further studies.

Glycosuria Alters Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Global Gene Expression and Virulence.

ABSTRACTUropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the principal etiology of more than half of urinary tract infections (UTI) in humans with diabetes mellitus. Epidemiological data and studies in mouse model of ascending UTI have elucidated various host factors responsible for increasing the susceptibility of diabetic hosts to UPEC-UTI. In contrast, diabetic urinary microenvironment-mediated alterations in UPEC physiology and its contributions to shaping UPEC-UTI pathogenesis in diabetes have not been examined. To address our central hypothesis that glycosuria directly induces urinary virulence of UPEC, we compared virulence characteristics and gene expression in human UPEC strains UTI89 (cystitis) and CFT073 (pyelonephritis), exposed for 2 h in vitro to urine from either male or female donors that was either plain or supplemented with glucose to mimic glycosuria. Compared to control UPEC exposed to nutrient-rich culture medium, lysogeny broth, glycosuria-exposed UPEC exhibited significant increase in biofilm formation and reduction in the hemagglutination of Guinea pig erythrocytes (a measure of type 1 piliation). In addition, the analysis of UTI89 transcriptome by RNA sequencing revealed that 2-h-long, in vitro exposure to glycosuria also significantly alters expression of virulence and metabolic genes central to urinary virulence of UPEC. Addition of galactose as an alternative carbon source affected biofilm formation and gene expression profile of UPEC to an extent similar to that observed with glucose exposure. In summary, our results provide novel insights into how glycosuria-mediated rapid changes in UPEC fitness may facilitate UTI pathogenesis in the diabetic urinary microenvironment.IMPORTANCE Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is an important causative agent of urinary tract infections in diabetic humans. We examined the effects of in vitro exposure to glycosuria (presence of glucose in urine) on the virulence and gene expression by UPEC. Our results show that glycosuria rapidly (in 2 h) alters UPEC gene expression, induces biofilm formation, and suppresses type 1 piliation. These results offer novel insights into the pathogenesis of UPEC in the urinary tract.

"Omics" Technologies - What Have They Told Us About Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Fitness and Virulence During Urinary Tract Infection?

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the main etiological agent of urinary tract infection (UTI), a widespread infectious disease of great impact on human health. This is further emphasized by the rapidly increase in antimicrobial resistance in UPEC, which compromises UTI treatment. UPEC biology is highly complex since uropathogens must adopt extracellular and intracellular lifestyles and adapt to different niches in the host. In this context, the implementation of forefront ‘omics’ technologies has provided substantial insight into the understanding of UPEC pathogenesis, which has opened the doors for new therapeutics and prophylactics discovery programs. Thus, ‘omics’ technologies applied to studies of UPEC during UTI, or in models of UTI, have revealed extensive lists of factors that are important for the ability of UPEC to cause disease. The multitude of large ‘omics’ datasets that have been generated calls for scrutinized analysis of specific factors that may be of interest for further development of novel treatment strategies. In this review, we describe main UPEC determinants involved in UTI as estimated by ‘omics’ studies, and we compare prediction of factors across the different ‘omics’ technologies, with a focus on those that have been confirmed to be relevant under UTI-related conditions. We also discuss current challenges and future perspectives regarding analysis of data to provide an overview and better understanding of UPEC mechanisms involved in pathogenesis which should assist in the selection of target sites for future prophylaxis and treatment.

Evaluation of Biofilm Formation and Virulence Genes and Association with Antibiotic Resistance Patterns of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Strains in Southwestern Iran

Background: Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) strains, encoding superficial and secretory virulence factors, can lead to colonization and facilitation of bacterial growth in the host urinary tract, causing Urinary Tract Infection (UTI). Objectives: This study determined the ability of biofilm formation by the Congo red agar method, the presence of virulence genes using the multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method, and the relationship between biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance patterns and virulence genes in E. coli clinical isolates in Yasuj. Methods: This cross-sectional study was performed on 144 UPEC isolates collected in 2017. Biofilm formation was detected by the Congo red agar phenotypic assay and virulence factors by the multiplex PCR method. Antibiotic resistance tests were performed by the Kirby-Bauer method. Results: Out of 144 isolates of E. coli, 22 (19.4%) isolates showed to be strong biofilm producers, 27 (23.8%) moderate biofilm producers, and 64 (56.3%) weak biofilm producers. A significant relationship was observed between biofilm-producing strains and resistance to ampicillin (P = 0.020) and cotrimoxazole (P = 0.038). The virulence genes in strong biofilm producers included iutA (95%), FimH (93%), ompT (90%), PAI (90%), and TraT (81%) genes. The phylogroup B2 carried the most virulence genes. A significant correlation was observed between E. coli phylogenetic groups and aer (P = 0.019), iroN (P = 0.042), and ompT (P = 0.032) virulence genes. Conclusions: The results of this study showed a high prevalence of virulence genes, and antibiotic-resistant E. coli strains capable of biofilm formation. The results of this study may help elucidate the pathogenesis of UPEC and facilitate better treatment strategies for patients with UTIs in this geographic area.

Transcriptomic analysis reveals that the small protein MgtS contributes to the virulence of uropathogenic Escherichia coli

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the most common pathogen causing urinary tract infections (UTIs). The pathogenesis of UPEC relies on the formation of intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs) after invading bladder epithelial cells (BECs). In this study, the gene expression profiles of UPEC after invading BECs were comprehensively analyzed using RNA sequencing to reveal potential virulence-related genes. The small protein MgtS, which is transcriptionally upregulated in BECs, was further investigated. It was found that MgtS contributed positively to UPEC invasion of BECs and colonization in murine bladders. A two-component regulatory system, PhoPQ was confirmed as a direct activator of mgtS expression in BECs, and magnesium limitation is proposed as a host cue for the activation. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the transcriptome profile of UPEC during its intra-BECs life, revealing a new virulence-associated gene and its regulatory mechanism.

The Gene Expression Profile of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli in Women with Uncomplicated Urinary Tract Infections Is Recapitulated in the Mouse Model.

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the primary causative agent of uncomplicated urinary tract infections (UTIs). UPEC fitness and virulence determinants have been evaluated in a variety of laboratory settings, including a well-established mouse model of UTI. However, the extent to which bacterial physiologies differ between experimental models and human infections remains largely understudied. To address this important issue, we compared the transcriptomes of three different UPEC isolates in human infection and under a variety of laboratory conditions, including LB culture, filter-sterilized urine culture, and the UTI mouse model. We observed high correlation in gene expression between the mouse model and human infection in all three strains examined (Pearson correlation coefficients of 0.86 to 0.87). Only 175 of 3,266 (5.4%) genes shared by all three strains had significantly different expression levels, with the majority of them (145 genes) downregulated in patients. Importantly, gene expression levels of both canonical virulence factors and metabolic machinery were highly similar between the mouse model and human infection, while the in vitro conditions displayed more substantial differences. Interestingly, comparison of gene expression between the mouse model and human infection hinted at differences in bladder oxygenation as well as nutrient composition. In summary, our work strongly validates the continued use of this mouse model for the study of the pathogenesis of human UTI.IMPORTANCE Different experimental models have been used to study UPEC pathogenesis, including in vitro cultures in different media, tissue culture, and mouse models of infection. The last is especially important since it allows evaluation of mechanisms of pathogenesis and potential therapeutic strategies against UPEC. Bacterial physiology is greatly shaped by environment, and it is therefore critical to understand how closely bacterial physiology in any experimental model relates to human infection. In this study, we found strong correlation in bacterial gene expression between the mouse model and human UTI using identical strains, suggesting that the mouse model accurately mimics human infection, definitively supporting its continued use in UTI research.

Nitrate Metabolism Modulates Biosynthesis of Biofilm Components in Uropathogenic Escherichia coli and Acts as a Fitness Factor During Experimental Urinary Tract Infection.

To successfully colonize a variety of environments, bacteria can coordinate complex collective behaviors such as biofilm formation. To thrive in oxygen limited niches, bacteria’s versatile physiology enables the utilization of alternative electron acceptors. Nitrate, the second most favorable electron acceptor after oxygen, plays a prominent role in the physiology of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) and is abundantly found in urine. Here we analyzed the role of extracellular nitrate in the pathogenesis of the UPEC strain CFT073 with an initial focus on biofilm formation. Colony morphotyping in combination with extensive mutational, transcriptional, and protein expression analyses of CFT073 wild-type and mutants deficient in one or several nitrate reductases revealed an association between nitrate reduction and the biosynthesis of biofilm extracellular matrix components. We identified a role for the nitrate response regulator NarL in modulating expression of the biofilm master regulator CsgD. To analyze the role of nitrate reduction during infection in vivo, we tested wild-type CFT073 and a nitrate reductase null mutant in an ascending urinary tract infection (UTI) model. Individually, each strain colonized extensively, suggesting that nitrate reduction is expendable during UTI. However, during competitive co-infection, the strain incapable of nitrate reduction was strongly outcompeted. This suggests that nitrate reduction can be considered a non-essential but advantageous fitness factor for UPEC pathogenesis. This implies that UPEC rapidly adapts their metabolic needs to the microenvironment of infected tissue. Collectively, this work demonstrates a unique association between nitrate respiration, biofilm formation, and UPEC pathogenicity, highlighting how the use of alternative electron acceptors enables bacterial pathogens to adapt to challenging infectious microenvironments.

Virulence markers, phylogenetic evolution, and molecular techniques of uropathogenic Escherichia coli

Urinary tract infections are very significant public health concerns globally with most of them being caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). The wide range of genetic makeup of UPEC due to the acquisition of specialized virulence genes located on mobile genetic elements called pathogenicity islands is the rationale behind colonization of the urinary tracts of humans as against diarrheagenic E. coli pathotype. Indebt understanding of the virulence mechanisms and pathogenesis of UPEC lies in the knowledge of the molecular techniques of UPEC which have advanced tremendously. This review has carefully summarized the unique virulence markers, the phylogenetic evolution, and molecular techniques used in the studies of pathogenesis and virulence of UPEC.

Dietary restriction of iron availability attenuates UPEC pathogenesis in a mouse model of urinary tract infection.

Iron is a critical nutrient required by hosts and pathogens. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), the principal causative agent of urinary tract infections (UTIs), chelate iron for their survival and persistence. Here, we demonstrate that dietary modulation of iron availability limits UPEC burden in a mouse model of UTI. Mice on a low-iron diet exhibit reduced systemic and bladder mucosal iron availability and harbor significantly lower bacterial burden, concomitant with dampened inflammation. Hepcidin is a master regulator of iron that controls iron-dependent UPEC intracellular growth. Hepcidin-deficient mice ( Hamp1-/-) exhibit accumulation of iron deposits, persistent bacterial burden in the bladder, and a heightened inflammatory response to UTI. However, a low-iron dietary regimen reversed the iron overload and increased bacterial burden phenotypes in Hamp1-/- mice. Thus modulation of iron levels via diet can reduce UPEC infection and persistence, which may have significant implications for clinical management of UTI.

Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 Downregulates CD36 Transcription in Macrophages to Induce Inflammation During Acute Urinary Tract Infections.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) induce cystitis, pyelonephritis, and can cause kidney scarring and failure if inflammation is not under control. The detailed effects of cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF1), the key UPEC toxin, on the pathogenicity of UPEC remain unclear. CD36 is an important scavenger receptor, responsible for pathogen and apoptotic cell clearance, and plays an essential role in host immune defense and homeostasis. Regulation of CD36 by bacterial toxins has not been reported. In this study, using a pyelonephritis mouse model, CNF1 was observed to contribute to increasing neutrophils and bacterial titers in infected bladder and kidney tissues, resulting in severe inflammation and tissue damage. CD36 expression in macrophages was found to be decreased by CNF1 in vitro and in vivo. We demonstrated that CNF1 attenuated CD36 transcription by decreasing expressions of its upstream transcription factors LXRβ and C/EBPα and their recruitment to the CD36 promotor. In addition, Cdc42 was found to be involved in CNF1-mediated downregulation of LXRβ. Our study investigated the pathogenesis of cnf1-carrying UPEC, which affected host innate immune defenses and homeostasis through regulation of CD36 in macrophages during acute UTIs.

Discovery of New Genes Involved in Curli Production by a Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Strain from the Highly Virulent O45:K1:H7 Lineage.

ABSTRACTCurli are bacterial surface-associated amyloid fibers that bind to the dye Congo red (CR) and facilitate uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) biofilm formation and protection against host innate defenses. Here we sequenced the genome of the curli-producing UPEC pyelonephritis strain MS7163 and showed it belongs to the highly virulent O45:K1:H7 neonatal meningitis-associated clone. MS7163 produced curli at human physiological temperature, and this correlated with biofilm growth, resistance of sessile cells to the human cationic peptide cathelicidin, and enhanced colonization of the mouse bladder. We devised a forward genetic screen using CR staining as a proxy for curli production and identified 41 genes that were required for optimal CR binding, of which 19 genes were essential for curli synthesis. Ten of these genes were novel or poorly characterized with respect to curli synthesis and included genes involved in purine de novo biosynthesis, a regulator that controls the Rcs phosphorelay system, and a novel repressor of curli production (referred to as rcpA). The involvement of these genes in curli production was confirmed by the construction of defined mutants and their complementation. The mutants did not express the curli major subunit CsgA and failed to produce curli based on CR binding. Mutation of purF (the first gene in the purine biosynthesis pathway) and rcpA also led to attenuated colonization of the mouse bladder. Overall, this work has provided new insight into the regulation of curli and the role of these amyloid fibers in UPEC biofilm formation and pathogenesis.

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) in Jordan: Prevalence of urovirulence genes and antibiotic resistance

This study examined the prevalence of urovirulence genes in Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) isolates obtained from Jordanian patients. In addition, antibiotic susceptibility profile of the isolates was also examined.Isolates (n = 227) were subjected to PCR detection of vat, fyuA, chuA, yfcV, sivH, shiA, sisA, sisB and eco274 genes. The UPEC virulence genes prevalence rates were shiA (92%), sisA (72%), eco274 (44%), sivH (36%), vat (27%), yfcV (25%), sisB (25%), chuA (20%), and fyuA (18%). Approximately half and 82% of the isolates produced extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) and were resistant to three or more antimicrobial classes, respectively. Among the isolates, highest resistance was for augmentin (83%) and nalidixic acid (78%). Modest resistance was for cefoxitin (21%) and cefixime (20%). Low resistance was for norfloxacin (5%), amikacin (3%), and ertapenem (0.4%).In conclusion, The UPEC virulence genes shiA and sisA are highly prevalent among the isolates. In addition, high resistance of UPEC to augmentin and nalidixic acid was reported. This may help in elucidating UPEC pathogenesis, and facilitate better treatment strategies for urinary tract infection patients.

Genome-Wide Discovery of Genes Required for Capsule Production by Uropathogenic Escherichia coli

ABSTRACTUropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is a major cause of urinary tract and bloodstream infections and possesses an array of virulence factors for colonization, survival, and persistence. One such factor is the polysaccharide K capsule. Among the different K capsule types, the K1 serotype is strongly associated with UPEC infection. In this study, we completely sequenced the K1 UPEC urosepsis strain PA45B and employed a novel combination of a lytic K1 capsule-specific phage, saturated Tn5 transposon mutagenesis, and high-throughput transposon-directed insertion site sequencing (TraDIS) to identify the complement of genes required for capsule production. Our analysis identified known genes involved in capsule biosynthesis, as well as two additional regulatory genes (mprA and lrhA) that we characterized at the molecular level. Mutation of mprA resulted in protection against K1 phage-mediated killing, a phenotype restored by complementation. We also identified a significantly increased unidirectional Tn5 insertion frequency upstream of the lrhA gene and showed that strong expression of LrhA induced by a constitutive Pcl promoter led to loss of capsule production. Further analysis revealed loss of MprA or overexpression of LrhA affected the transcription of capsule biosynthesis genes in PA45B and increased sensitivity to killing in whole blood. Similar phenotypes were also observed in UPEC strains UTI89 (K1) and CFT073 (K2), demonstrating that the effects were neither strain nor capsule type specific. Overall, this study defined the genome of a UPEC urosepsis isolate and identified and characterized two new regulatory factors that affect UPEC capsule production.

Oral supplementation of trans-cinnamaldehyde reduces uropathogenic Escherichia coli colonization in a mouse model.

In this study, we have demonstrated that oral supplementation of trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC) reduced uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC)-associated lower urinary tract infection (UTI) in mice. Specifically, in-feed supplementation of TC significantly decreased UPEC populations in the urethra and bladder, thereby reducing the infectious load. These findings are particularly significant given the increase in incidence and prevalence of antibiotic-resistant UTIs. Our study offers new insights into the potential use of natural antimicrobials including TC, the active ingredient in cinnamon, as a nonantibiotic-based natural dietary intervention in the prophylaxis of lower UTIs.