Patent Medicine Stores Research Articles

Psycho-Socio Personal Predictors of Health-Seeking Behaviours among Young Adults in Tertiary Institutions in Delta State, Nigeria

The psycho socio-economic personal devastating issues of climate change and emerging health issues like Ebola and COVID-19 have resulted in massive preventable deaths among young adults and increased ill-health in most Nigerian campuses. The result of emerging health issues birthed a new normal requiring new health knowledge, practices, skills, and innovations of health-seeking behaviour in nearly all facets of human endeavor that conform to global climate change and emerging health issues instituted by Covid-19 prevention protocols designed to curb its spread. One such health survival strategy is the promotion of positive health-seeking behaviour of young adults in tertiary institutions in Delta State. This research investigates the joint contribution of the independent variables (health education, personal income, safe water, stress management, environmental sanitation, food security, nutritional practice, medical check-up, physical exercise, personal hygiene, attitudinal behaviour, cultural belief, access to basic health services, personal health) as predictors of health-seeking behaviour among young adults in tertiary institutions in Delta state. A total of 7620 questionnaires were sent out for the study; 4000 females but 3869 (56.5%) were correctly filled and 3500 males but 2981 (43.5%) were correctly filled by young adults in eight tertiary institutions in Delta State, Nigeria. The findings of this study revealed that psychological and personal factors are significant predictors of health-seeking behavior among young adults and social factors are not significant to health-seeking behavior among young adults. There was no significant gender difference in health knowledge and health-seeking behaviour among tertiary students. Recommendation was made that the State government should make healthcare services available and accessible to students in all our tertiary institutions in Delta state at affordable cost to discourage negative health-seeking behaviours from quacks and unqualified healthcare givers, patronizing patent medicine stores to avoid preventable deaths, spread of infectious diseases’ and promote the personal health of students while in the campus.

Private sector availability and affordability of under 5 malaria health commodities in selected states in Nigeria and the Federal Capital Territory.

To guarantee uninterrupted service delivery, quality-assured products must be affordable and continuously available across all sectors, including the private sector, which provides more than 60% of healthcare services in Nigeria. We investigated the private sector availability and affordability of under 5 malaria commodities to establish the level of access in this sector. We surveyed patent medicine and pharmacy stores across seven states in Nigeria and the Federal Capital Territory to establish the availability and affordability of selected malaria commodities for children under 5 years. Availability was measured as the percentage of visited outlets with the product of interest on the day of visit, while affordability was assessed by establishing if it cost more than a day's wage for the least-paid government worker to purchase a full course of malaria diagnostic test and/or medication. Artemisinin-based antimalarials for uncomplicated and severe malaria were the most available commodities. SPAQ1 and SPAQ2 used for seasonal malaria chemoprevention campaign were surprisingly also available in some outlets. However, only about half (48.3% and 53.3%) of the surveyed outlets had stock of artemether/lumefantrine (AL1) and artesunate injection, respectively. The median price of surveyed products ranged from USD (United States Dollars) 0.38 to USD 2.17 per treatment/test. Except for amodiaquine tablet and artemether injection, which cost less, all other originator brands cost the same or more than the lowest-priced generic. Antimalarial products were affordable as their median prices were not more than a day's wage for the least-paid government worker. However, when the cost of testing and treatment with artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) was assessed, testing and treatment with dihydroartemisinin/piperaquine were unaffordable as the they cost more than 1.5 times the daily wage of the least-paid government worker. The overall private sector availability of under-five malaria commodities in surveyed locations was suboptimal. Also, testing and treatment with recommended ACTs were not affordable for all surveyed products. These findings suggest the need for interventions to improve access to affordable under-five malaria commodities.

Pattern and predictors of medication use among adults in southwestern Nigeria: A community-based cross-sectional study.

Population-based drug utilization studies are scanty in Nigeria. The aim was to determine the pattern and predictors of medication use among adults in the communities of Southwestern Nigeria. A cross-sectional study was conducted among adults selected by multi-stage sampling from Oyo State communities. The questionnaires, adapted from the WHO Students' Drug Use Questionnaire and previous studies, were pretested and interviewer administered. The respondents' socio-demographic characteristics, the pattern of medication use, prescribers, and sources of drug acquisition were obtained. Binary logistic regression was used to determine the predictor of medications used. Of the 999 respondents, 501 resided in rural communities while 498 dwelled in urban areas. The mean (±SD) age of the respondents was 38 ± 15 years. The median (range)% prevalence of medication use were as follows: lifetime use, 58.2 (17.7-81.0); current use, 31.2 (8.9-65.9); and past use, 20.3 (9.2-28.9). Medications were mainly obtained from patent medicine stores, median (range%), 71 (65-80). The commonly used drugs were paracetamol, 626 (67.6); nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, 174 (18.8); artemether/lumefantrine, 422 (68.2); ampicillin/cloxacillin, 220 (48.6); and chlorpheniramine, 59 (39.9). Factors predictive of current medication use, adjusted odd ratio (95% confidence interval) were as follows: antimalarial [male, 0.7 (0.5, 0.9)]; antibacterial [male, 0.6 (0.4-0.9)]; analgesics [married, 1.5 (1.1-2.2); presence of health facilities, 0.5 (0.3-0.7); and shorter distance to health facility, 1.5 (1.1-2.1)]. Antimalarials, antibacterial, and analgesics were commonly used and inappropriately obtained by adults in Southwestern Nigeria. Factors predictive of current medication use were gender, marital status, the presence of health facilities, and distance to health facilities. There is a need for more extensive countrywide medication use studies and enlightenment programs to ensure the appropriate use of medications.

Quality of Oral Drug Formulations of Artemisinin-Based Combination Therapy Sold in Katsina State, Nigeria

There are increasing reports of substandard antimalarial drugs, and these have been a severe under-recognised public health problem especially in developing countries. For this reason, 21 samples of different brands of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) comprising of artemether/lumefantrine and artesunate/amodiaquine oral drug formulations that are available on sale in different hospital pharmacies and patent medicine stores in Katsina State, Nigeria were evaluated for microbial and chemical qualities. Microbial limit test (MLT) and assay for the content of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) using standard high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) procedures were carried out as described in the official monograph of the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) and the International Pharmacopoeia (IP). The results obtained had indicated that all the ACTs oral drug preparations were free from microbial contamination except one sample of artesunate-amodiaquine showing viable total combined yeasts/moulds count (TYMC) of 1.0 x 101 colony forming units (CFU)/g. All the samples complied with the USP and IP criteria for the microbiological quality of non-sterile oral dosage forms. On the other hand, 10 (47.6%) out of the 21 samples met the specific chemical quality standards. Moreover, 8 (57.1%) and 3 (42.9%) of the artemether/lumefantrine and artesunate/amodiaquine had active ingredient outside the set pharmacopoeial limit and, therefore, were none compliant to the IP specifications for percentage content. The presence of substandard ACTs may lead to possible therapeutic failure from the use of such kind of formulations, facilitate the development and spread of drug-resistance. There is the need for effective government regulation and adequate enforcement on the production, distribution and sales of good quality medicines.

Bacteriological Quality of Commonly Dispensed Non-prescription Drugs (Tablets) Sold in Patent Medicine Stores

Bacteriological Quality of Commonly Dispensed Non-prescription Drugs (Tablets) Sold in Patent Medicine Stores

Predictors of Healthcare-Seeking Behaviour, Health Services Access and Utilization in Ajebo Community, South-West, Nigeria

Background: Health is a fundamental requirement for living a socially and economically productive life. Poor health inflicts great hardships on households, including debilitation, substantial monetary expenditures, loss of productivity and sometimes, death.
 Objectives: To describe healthcare-seeking behaviour, access to health services and utilisation, and their predictors in a southwestern Nigerian community.
 Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted in Ajebo community, Obafemi/Owode Local Government Area in Ogun State. A total of 420 respondents were studied using an interviewer-administered questionnaire to collect quantitative data. 
 Results: More than half (54.0%) of the respondents had access to public health facilities, 41.7% had access to private health facilities, while patent medicine stores were accessed by 4.3% of the respondents. Out of the 249 (59.3%) who were ill in the preceding three months, 92.4% of them sought healthcare. More males utilized government-owned health services s than females (χ² = 3.878, p = 0.049). More than half (56.4%) travelled >10 minutes to access healthcare services. Lack of formal education was not a hindrance to seeking healthcare (OR = 31.392, p = 0.003, CI = 3.323-2.347). Income earning <30,000 Naira was the strongest predictor of healthcare utilization (OR = 3.304, p =0.001, 95% CI = 2.007-5.441). Education with OR = 31.392 (p = 0.003, 95% CI = 3.323-96.570) was the strongest predictor of healthcare-seeking behaviour.
 Conclusion: Healthcare-seeking behaviour was not limited by lack of formal education. The utilisation of public health facilities was high among the respondents. State of employment and income were strong predictors of healthcare utilisation in Ajebo community.

Assessing health-seeking behaviour and malaria prevention practices among communities in four districts of the Volta Region of Ghana

BackgroundMalaria is a preventable disease that causes huge morbidity and mortality in malaria-endemic areas, especially among children and pregnant women. The malaria control programme focuses on the prevention of mosquito bites using insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and mosquito aerosol sprays and coils, as well as prevention of severe disease among those infected through prompt and adequate treatment. The success of the malaria control programme in Ghana is dependent on the malaria prevention practices of people in the community. Therefore, this study evaluated the malaria prevention practices of participants in four districts of the Volta Region of Ghana.MethodsThis was a cross-sectional study conducted in Ketu South, Nkwanta South, Hohoe Municipality and Ho West districts of the Volta Region of Ghana. Questionnaire were administered to adults who consented to each household visited. Questions were asked on the socio-demographics and malaria prevention practices of the households. Data analysis was done using SPSS version 23 with frequency distribution done for all the variables. Pearson chi-square was used to determine the significant association between socio-demographics and malaria prevention practices, and Multivariate nominal logistic regression analysis was used to model the relationship between dichotomous dependent variables (ITN ownership and usage) and independent variables.ResultsOut of the 2493 participants; 2234 (89.6%) owned ITN and 1528 (68.4%) used ITN a night before this study, 768 (30.8%) used mosquito aerosol spray and 368 (15%) used mosquito coil. More females significantly owned ITN than males (1293, 92.4%, p ≤ 0.001). Participants from Ketu South had 1.5 times higher odds of owning an ITN compared to Ho West whose odds are not different from Nkwanta South or Hohoe (AOR, 1.56 [95% 1.09–2.22]; p = 0.01). In terms of ITN usage, participants in Nkwanta South were less likely to use ITN compared to the other districts; AOR, 0.434 [95% CI 0.31–0.62, p < 0.001]. Also, of the 668 participants that had a fever within the past 3 days, 268 (40.1%) visited a patent medicine store and 156 (23.4%) visited health facilities.ConclusionThere is high ownership of ITNs, but relatively low utilization among the community members. Education on malaria prevention practices should be intensified and continuous among the population of the Volta Region to ensure the success of malaria control in the region.

Antimicrobial stewardship: Assessment of knowledge, awareness of antimicrobial resistance and appropriate antibiotic use among healthcare students in a Nigerian University

BackgroundInappropriate use of antibiotics is a major cause of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Inadequate knowledge about AMR among healthcare students could affect their practice of antimicrobial stewardship as future healthcare professionals. This study aims to assess the use of antibiotics and knowledge of AMR among future healthcare professionals of a Nigerian University.MethodsRespondents’ knowledge of antimicrobial resistance, use of antibiotics, and source of antibiotics in the past 12 months was explored using a self-administered questionnaire. Multivariate analyses were used to evaluate the relationship between specific variables and respondents’ knowledge.ResultsOf the 939 questionnaires administered to the students, 866 were filled given a response rate of 92.2 %. A total of (765; 88.3 %) of the respondents were aware that antimicrobial resistance makes it harder to eliminate the infection from the body as existing drugs become less effective. In all 824, (95.2 %) of the respondents had use antibiotics in the past 12 months. The use of antibiotics to treat malaria was self-reported by (175; 21.2 %). About half (432; 52.4 %) purchased the antibiotics from community pharmacies, while others obtained their antibiotics from the hospitals (192; 23.3 %), patent medicine stores (150; 18.2 %), and friends and family (50; 6.1 %) in the last 12 months. In all 506, (58.4 %) had good knowledge of antimicrobial resistance. Logistic regression shows that students in 3rd to 6th year 9.29 [AOR = 9.29, 95 % CI: (3.7–22.96)], had greater knowledge of antimicrobial resistance.ConclusionsThe healthcare students demonstrated a moderate knowledge of AMR. This underscores the need to adopt several educational tactics to introduce the concepts of AMR to the students and ensure there are strict policies to regulate the flow of antibiotics.

Hearing healthcare gaps in LMICS: snapshot from a semi-urban community in Nigeria.

Low and middle-income countries (LMICs) have high prevalence of hearing loss which are mainly due to preventable causes. While urban communities in LMICs are likely to have functional hearing healthcare delivery infrastructure, rural and semi-urban communities may have different reality. This study aimed to provide: (i) a snapshot of the burden of ear diseases and (ii) a description of available hearing healthcare resources in a semi-urban Nigerian community. A cross-sectional study of households selected by multistage random sampling technique. Seventy-four participants: 39 males and 35 females with mean age of 34 years ± 5.24 were recruited and answered a structured questionnaire. In addition, the availability of hearing healthcare services in 15 health centers within the community were determined. All participants reported recent occurrence of ear complaints or gave similar history in a household member. Common complaints were ear discharge, ear pain and hearing loss. Medical intervention was sought from patent medicine stores, hospitals and traditional healers. None of the assessed hospitals within the study site was manned by an ENT surgeon or ENT trained nurse. Despite the heavy burden of ear complaints there is inadequate hearing healthcare delivery in a typical LMIC community. This highlights the need for urgent improvement of hearing healthcare.

Comparative assessment of the prevalence, practices and factors associated with self‐medication with antibiotics in Africa

To evaluate and compare the prevalence, reasons, sources and factors associated with self-medication with antibiotics (SMA) within Africa. Systematic review and meta-analysis. An electronic search of PubMed and Google Scholar databases was performed for observational studies conducted between January 2005 and February 2020. Two reviewers independently screened abstracts and full texts using the PRISMA flowchart and performed quality assessment of eligible studies. Both qualitative and quantitative syntheses were carried out. Forty studies from 19 countries were eligible for qualitative synthesis. The prevalence of SMA in Africa ranged from 12.1% to 93.9% with a median prevalence of 55.7% (IQR 41-75%). Western Africa was the sub-region with the highest reported prevalence of 70.1% (IQR 48.3-82.1%), followed by Northern Africa with 48.1% (IQR 41.1-64.3%). We identified 27 antibiotics used for self-medication from 13 different antibiotic classes. Most frequently used antibiotics were penicillins (31 studies), tetracyclines (25 studies) and fluoroquinolones (23 studies). 41% of these antibiotics belong to the WHO Watch Group. The most frequent indications for SMA were upper respiratory tract infections (27 studies), gastrointestinal tract symptoms (25 studies) and febrile illnesses (18 studies). Common sources of antibiotics used for self-medication were community pharmacies (31 studies), family/friends (20 studies), leftover antibiotics (19 studies) and patent medicine stores (18 studies). The most frequently reported factor associated with SMA was no education/low educational status (nine studies). The prevalence of SMA is high in Africa and varies across sub-regions with the highest prevalence reported in Western Africa. Drivers of SMA are complex, comprising of socio-economic factors and insufficient access to health care coupled with poorly implemented policies regulating antibiotic sales.

Prognostic factors of time to first abortion after sexual debut among fragile state Congolese women: a survival analysis

BackgroundDespite the common restrictive abortion laws, abortion remains widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries. Women still utilize abortion services and put their lives and health at risk because abortion can only be procured illegally in private facilities such as mid-level or small patent medicine store that may be manned by unskilled providers or through a non-medicated approach. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of abortion, the reasons women had abortions, median years to first abortion after sexual debut and examine the factors of time to first abortion among women of reproductive age in the Republic of Congo.MethodsWe used data from the most recent Republic of Congo Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). A total sample of 3622 women aged 15–49 years was analyzed. We estimated the overall prevalence of abortion and median years to first abortion. Furthermore, we examined the factors of time to first abortion after sexual debut using multivariable Cox regression and reported the estimates using adjusted Hazard Ratio (aHR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Statistical significance was determined at p < 0.05.Results60% of pregnancies which are terminated are as a result of induced abortion and median years of time to first abortion after sexual debut was 9.0. The prominent reasons for abortion were due to too short birth interval (23.8%), lack of money (21.0%) and that husband/partner did not need a child at that time (14.0%). Women’s age and region were notable factors in timing to first abortion. Furthermore, women from poorer, middle, richer and richest households had 34, 67, 86 and 94% higher risk of abortion respectively, when compared with women from poorest households (all p < 0.05). Women currently in union/living with a man and formerly in union had 41 and 29% reduction in the risk of abortion respectively, when compared with those never in union (all p < 0.05). In addition, women with primary and secondary+ education had 42 and 76% higher risk of abortion respectively, when compared with women with no formal education (all p < 0.05).ConclusionThere was high prevalence of abortion with short years at first abortion. Abortion was associated with women’s characteristics. There is need for unwanted pregnancy prevention intervention and the improvement in pregnancy care to reduce adverse pregnancy outcomes among women.

Determinants of Care-Seeking Practices for Children with Sickle Cell Disease in Ekiti, Southwest Nigeria.

BackgroundDue to the chronic nature of sickle cell disease (SCD), affected individuals may seek help from diverse places thus raising the need to understand their health-seeking behavior (HSB) in order to design an appropriate management policy for them.AimThe aim of this study was to evaluate the HSB among pediatric SCD patients relative to their non-SCD counterparts attending a tertiary facility in Southwest Nigeria and identified predictors of poor HSB among SCD patients.MethodsA total of 110 children with SCD were recruited and studied for their HSPs which were compared with 110 non-SCD patients with other chronic medical conditions. Questionnaires were used to obtain self-reported information on participants’ socio-demographic data and HSB. Logistic regression was used to determine the predictors of poor HSB among the SCD cohort.ResultsMore SCD patients received treatments at private hospitals, patent medicine stores and faith-based centers compared to their non-SCD counterparts (p=0.0052; 0.006; and 0.007), respectively. No difference was observed in the patronage of traditional care centres 10 (9.1%) vs 6 (5.5%). More SCD patients 61 (55.5%) vs 35 (31.8%) exhibited poor HSB (p=0.0004). SCD patients who were not enrolled on health insurance scheme were 18 times more likely to have poor HSB (OR=18.38, 95% CI (4.41–76.57), p value= <0.0001) while absence of VOC within the preceding year reduces the risk of poor HSB by 91.5% (OR=0.085, 95% CI (0.028–0.258), p value= <0.0001).ConclusionSCD patients in the study locality had poor HSB. This raises the need for their education on proper HSB. More enrollment into health insurance scheme and the prevention of VOC will lessen the burden of poor HSB. The high patronage of non-hospital care facilities in this study raises the need for stakeholders to monitor activities and train the operators at these informal care centres.

A Critical Analysis of the Effects of Strategic Management on Small Scale Businesses; A case study of Patent Medicine Stores in Abuja, Nigeria

The impact of strategic management in businesses cannot be over-emphasised irrespective of the size or nature of the business. The strategy provides the key to success in today’s changing business environment; hence, the success of a business can be traced to a well-pronounced factor, which is strategic management. As expressed by Jauch (2015), strategy formulation is a grand plan to be followed to achieve a set objective in small-scale businesses. For improved profitability and sustainability, small-scale businesses need to manage their operations intentionally. To utilise the limited resources effectively for higher profitability, small-scale businesses need a strategy; when resources are finite, when there is uncertainty about competitive strength and behaviour, when decisions must be coordinated between far places and overtime, and when there is uncertainty about control of initiative Miller (2013). However, the study critically analysed the effect of strategic management on small-scale businesses of Patent Medicine Stores in Abuja, Nigeria, especially in the 21st century. The methodology comprises the research and questionnaire design, data collection and data analysis techniques. The researcher was able to retrieve 53 questionnaires out of 70 and test the hypothesis using the chi-square method. From the result after the research, the researcher discovered that strategic management has a great effect on small-scale businesses of patent medicine stores in Abuja, Nigeria. Conclusively, business owners and managers must formulate policies and strategies if their businesses must continue to exist, serve and sustain competition.

Health care options and factors influencing health seeking behavior in a rural community in Nigeria: A cross-sectional study

Introduction: Health care resources are disproportionately distributed between urban and rural areas in many developing countries, including Nigeria. Barriers to health care like cultural beliefs, poor education, and financial constraints make many rural dwellers seek other options of health care available to them. This paper aimed to determine the sociodemographic factors that influence health-seeking practices in a rural community setting. Methods: A sample of 380 rural community dwellers in Southern Nigeria was recruited in a cross-sectional study. An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic, healthcare access, and utilization data. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 25.0 software. A chi-square test was used to find the association between sociodemographic characteristics and their health-seeking practices. Results: Equal proportions (43.4%, 42.9%) of the respondents fell within the younger age categories of 10–29 and 30–49 years. Self-reported factors influencing the choice of health care were: promptness of care (41.8%), cost (22.4%), professionalism (16.8%), distance (15.8%), and cultural belief (3.2%). The patent medicine store was the most utilized source of health care (42.1%), and 36.8% of respondents sought health care in the hospital. The hospital was utilized by 41.8% of respondents with secondary education, 34.9% with tertiary education, 31.7% with primary education, and 26.1% with no formal education. Females tended to seek health care from hospitals (40.2%) and patent medicine store (43.7%) compared to males (33.3% and 41.0%, respectively). There was a statistically significant association between education and health care options utilized (P&lt;0.05). Conclusion: This study draws attention to the suboptimal utilization of standard health care in a rural community setting mainly due to perceived influences of promptness of health care service (41.8%) and cost (22.4%). It revealed that rural dwellers mainly seek healthcare from patent medicine stores. The health authorities should, therefore, prioritize the eradication of delays at the point of care and expand financial access to health care. These would enable rural dwellers to optimize the minimum standard of health care available within their various communities.

Clinical and socio-demographic determinants of pentazocine misuse among patients with sickle cell disease, Benin City, Nigeria: a case-control study.

IntroductionOpioids are a mainstay in sickle cell disease (SCD) pain care. Opioids are known to cause physical and/or psychological dependence. Increasingly, a significant number of Nigerian SCD patients ("Pentaholics") are observed to abuse pentazocine. This trend is associated with new patterns of medical complications. This study aimed to describe the local spectrum of pentazocine abuse complications and identify possible clinical and socio-demographic determinants.MethodsWe conducted a case control (age matched) study involving 50 booked SCD patients (25 cases and 25 controls) receiving care at the University of Benin Teaching Hospital, Benin City, Nigeria. Relevant clinical and socio-demographic details were collected and analyzed. Associations of categorical variables were tested using chi square or Fishers exact test.ResultsThe median participants’ age and duration of pentazocine abuse/self-use were 32 and 7 years respectively. Pentazocine injections were gotten from local pharmacies and patent medicine stores without any need for physician prescriptions (84% of cases). The buttocks, the thigh and the upper arm/deltoid were the commonest site of injection. Major complications observed were chronic ulcers on the thigh, deep wounds with abscess, healed scar at multiple sites, lower limb swelling and venous thrombosis. Working in healthcare fields/hospitals (Doctor, Nurses, Pharmacists) was significantly associated with pentazocine abuse.ConclusionHealth personnel or hospital workers living with SCD are more likely to abuse pentazocine. There is need for prompt triage and optimal control of acute sickle pain, institutional protocols for pain management and strict regulations on supply of prescription drugs such as pentazocine.

KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PRACTICE OF PHARMACOVIGILANCE AMONG OPERATORS OF PHARMACIES AND PATENT MEDICINE STORES IN SOKOTO METROPOLIS, NIGERIA

Background: The weak pharmacovigilance (PV) systems in many developing countries of the world have undoubtedly hampered the global quest for safe drug use. Operators of pharmacies and patent medicine stores have important roles to play in developing the PV systems in these countries being the main source of medicines for acute conditions. This study aimed to assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of pharmacovigilance among operators of pharmacies and patent medicine stores in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria.&#x0D; Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 249 operators of pharmacies and patent medicine stores selected by multistage sampling technique. Data were collected with a set of pretested self- administered, semi-structured questionnaire.&#x0D; Results: Although, the majority, 173 (69.5%) of the 249 respondents were aware of PV, less than a fifth (17.3%) had good knowledge of it. Despite positive attitude towards PV, only about half, 56 (52.3%) of the 107 respondents that had observed adverse drug reactions (ADRs) in clients reported; and of these, only about a tenth (12.8%) formally reported to the organization in charge of PV. The most commonly cited reasons for non-reporting were that they didn’t know where and how to report (51.0%), and unavailability of reporting forms (23.5%).&#x0D; Conclusion: This study showed poor knowledge of PV and sub-optimal ADRs reporting despite positive attitude towards it by operators of pharmacies and patent medicine stores in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. Sensitization of the populace and training of healthcare providers on PV and ADRs reporting are necessary for revitalizing the PV system in Sokoto State, Nigeria.&#x0D; Keywords: Pharmacovigilance, knowledge, attitude, practice

Prevalence, sources and purpose of self-prescribed non-opioid analgesic among health professionals in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria: a cause for concern

Abstract Background. Self-medication is defined as the use of medicines without a doctor’s prescription. The non-opioid analgesics (NOAs) constitute one of the most commonly self-prescribed drugs globally. This study aims to determine the prevalence of NOAs self-medication, and also explore the purpose and sources of the self-prescribed NOAs among health professionals in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. Methods. Data obtained from a cross-section of 205 health professionals in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria, were used for this study. The study tool used was a well-structured questionnaire. Data analysis was done using the SPSS version 20 software. Results. Only 36.6% of the 205 subjects were within the age range of 26 to 30 years, 38.0% were nurses. The majority (85.9%) of the subjects had self-prescribed NOAs, of which 6.8% of them had a positive history treatment for NOA overdose. Patent medicine stores (43.0%) were reported to be the most common source of acquisition of self-prescribed NOAs. The majority (63.9%) of the subjects used NOAs to get relieved from headaches. Paracetamol (79.0%) and Diclofenac (65.9%) were the top two self-prescribed NOAs among the subjects. Conclusion. Non-opioid analgesic self-prescription is a popular practice among health professionals in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. All the various routes of access (e.g. hospital pharmacy) to NOAs need to be revisited in order to curb the irrational use of NOAs in Nigerian society.

Sociodemographic factors associated with the healthcare-seeking behavior of heads of households in a rural community in Southern Nigeria

Objective: This study identified the factors associated with the healthcare-seeking behavior of heads of households in a rural community in Southern Nigeria. Materials and Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in 2014 among 410 household heads in Ivhiunone, Fugar in Edo State, Nigeria using two-staged sampling technique. Data collection was by means of a structured interviewer-administered questionnaire. IBM SPSS version 20 and PEPI version 4.0 were used for data analysis. Results: Over three-quarters of the respondents, 357 (87.1%) and 346 (84.4%) were males and married. The mean age of respondents was 49.5 ± 15.9 years. The majority of the respondents, 180 (43.9%) and 208 (50.7%) had a secondary level of education and were in the skill level 1 occupational classification. Almost all 406 (98.8%) respondents sought healthcare when ill, and of these, 399 (98.3%) use medications given. The preferred place to seek healthcare when ill by 373 (91.9%) of the respondents was patent medicine stores. Predictors of healthcare-seeking behavior included marital status, level of education and income. Other associated factors were age, sex, and occupational classification. Conclusion: The sociodemographic predictors of healthcare-seeking behavior included marital status, level of education and income. Other associated factors were age, sex, and occupation. Most of the household heads preferred home treatment and sought healthcare in patent medicine stores and hospitals. Improved quality of care provided to clients/patients in healthcare facilities could address the inappropriate healthcare-seeking behavior in the community.

Risk factors, pre-presentation management and clinical state of children with diarrhoea presenting in a community cottage hospital

Diarrhoael disease ranks second as the cause of under -five mortality worldwide and is particularly important in the developing world. Risk factors include water source, poor human and domestic waste disposal, poor hand washing and breastfeeding practices. Outcome depends on appropriate oral rehydration therapy, continued feeding and rational use of drugs. This work was designed to identify ongoing risk factors for diarrhoae presenting in a Cottage Hospital serving a well-defined catchment community in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. It also aimed at identifying modalities of treatment before presentation at the hospital, clinical state at presentation and outcome of treatment on the children. A prospective study recruiting all children admitted for diarrhoae disease in the hospital between January and June 2016. Sociodemographic data, risk factors, place and modalities of prepresentation management, clinical state on admission and outcome were recorded. Simple proportions, percentages and tables were used to analyze the data using stata 10 (stata corp. Texas). Fifty-four children representing 11.11% of 468 paediatric admissions to the hospital in the period were admitted into the study. The age range was 3 – 96months (median 11 months; 1QR 6 – 18 months). Identified risk factors were lack of Exclusive Breastfeeding (85.19%), use of feeding bottles (20.37%), questionable or poor sources of water (92.59%), poor hand washing practices with; 33.62% not washing hands always before feeding child and 35.91%, not always washing hands after cleaning infant/child’s faeces. Most of the children (35 or 64.82%) first presented at Patent Medicine Stores and 38 or 70.37% had some oral fluids. While 9 (16.67%) had dysentery 31(57.41) had anti-microbials and 18 (33.33%) had anti-emetics. Twelve (33.33%) of the children had severe dehydration and 2(3.70%) had extrapyramidal crisis from use of anti-emetics. None died, but one child developed cortical damage from hypoglycaemia. Diarrhoae is an important children problem in this catchment community. Major risk factors are lack of exclusive breastfeeding, unsatisfactory hand washing practices, questionable water sources and use of feeding bottles. These children are largely mismanaged at patent medicine stores before presentation at hospital. Provision of potable water should be a priority in this and similar communities. Good hygiene practices and Exclusive Breast Feeding(EBF) should be consistently taught in ante-natal clinics and immunization centres. Training and retraining of patent medicine dealers is essential.

Content Analysis of Single-dose Analgesics Dispensed by Attendants in Retail Drug Outlets in Obiaruku ,Delta State , Nigeria : A Surrogate-type Approach

Abstract&#x0D; &#x0D; Background&#x0D; Medicines can be potentially dangerous when used wrongly. This work examined drug combinations in pain management among attendants in retail drug outlets in Obiaruku, Delta State, Nigeria. &#x0D; Objectives&#x0D; The objective of this study was to describe drug combination in the management of pains by attendants working in community pharmacies and patent medicine shops (PMSs) &#x0D; Method &#x0D; This was a cross-sectional descriptive study using the ‘’surrogate shopper’’ approach to explore the real day-to-day practices and extract required information in twelve retail drug outlets located in the study area. Conversations were tape recorded and thereafter composition of single doses of pain relievers recommended by attendants were analyzed.&#x0D; Results&#x0D; A total of 12 retail outlets were visited. The average number of pills contained in a single dose pain reliever was 6.80±2.35 (for pharmacy outlets) and 5.33±1.32 (for PMSs), p&gt;0.05. Piroxicam (14, 73.7%) was most frequently used NSAID. More than half, 63.2% of the attendants included single tablet of Prednisolone, 5mg in their pain relief combination. Other drugs not indicated for analgesia were included in the single dose combo. This includes Vitamin B complex (2, 10.5%), cod liver oil, Sulfadoxine – pyrimetamine (1, 5.3%), Salbutamol and Ferrous sulphate (1, 5.3%) and multivitamin (12, 63.2%).There was no significant difference in pain management practices between Pharmacies and Patent medicine stores (PMSs) (p&gt;0.05).&#x0D; Conclusion&#x0D; Polypharmacy and irrational use of NSAIDs was a common practice among shop attendants in retail drug outlets, resulting in avoidable drug therapy problems and posing serious risk to public health.