Past Contingencies Research Articles

An Intelligent System for Operators Performance Multicriteria Evaluation of Distribution Networks

ABSTRACT – The operators play a important role in the distribution system control centers, especially during network contingencies. In these situations, the operators have to quickly restore the service and mitigate the impact of a failure on the electrical networks. The utilities need to know how efficiently the operators have executed their maneuvers and whether they are following the company proceedings. Thus, it is paramount to the utilities to have computational tools to evaluate operator performance. The development of this evaluation system is not usually discussed in the literature, whose focus is on developing computational tools for operator training and system operation simulators. Hence, we developed a computational system to evaluate the operator performance of distribution networks, taking the operator’s past actions and their impact on the company’s economic and technical indexes into account. This paper’s main contribution lies in proposing a multicriteria methodology and the computational model, based on an expert system, to assess the distribution network operator performance, considering 13 technical and economic criteria. The obtained results, by using real data from a Brazilian utility, present not only the operator’s global performance but also which criteria the operator has to improve, when past contingencies are analyzed.

Echohistoricism: Aristotle, Dryden, Montgomery, Conrad

The contingencies of military decisions and their outcomes have always shaped the course of literary history, determining even the languages in which it has been conducted. But modern literature takes a new bearing on its determinant military contingencies. This paper describes a modern literary scene that self-reflexively attributes to literature the potential to suspend these determining military events, and so to communicate the unactualised possibilities contained in past contingencies, even those that have been violently foreclosed. It is a scene of interested observers, adrift in a boat, who listen for the sounds of a distant naval battle. Having first located this scene's classical antecedents in Aristotle, I then track it through three pivotal and distinctively modern moments of literary self-periodization. In each instance, the scene is differently configured, articulating a specific conjuncture of war, textuality and literary self-definition. It appears in John Dryden as the setting of a modern critical dialogue on theatre, with James Montgomery as a Romantic definition of the poetry of sound in a lecture series on literature, and with Joseph Conrad as the narrative frame of a modernist tale within a tale. But the same scene re-echoes in all three – the scene of literary inscription as one in which, contingently, a war neither did nor did not take place, a battle was and was not fought.

Adaptive learning and forgetting in an unconventional experimental routine.

Forgetting is often thought of as the inability to remember, but remembering and forgetting allow behavior to adapt to a changing environment in distinct and separable ways. Learning and forgetting were assessed concurrently in two pigeon experiments that involved the same unconventional routine where the schedule of reinforcement changed every session. Sessions were run back-to-back with a 23-h mid-session break such that in a single visit to the testing chamber, a pigeon completed the second half of one session and the first half of the next. The beginning of a new session was either signaled or unsignaled. Experiment 1 involved concurrent variable-interval variable-interval schedules with four possible reinforcer ratios. Response allocation was sensitive to the richer schedule and was retained through the mid-session break. Experiment 2 involved peak interval schedules of varying durations. Temporal discrimination was rapidly acquired before and after the mid-session break, but not retained. Signaling the session change decreased control by past contingencies in both experiments, demonstrating that learning and forgetting can be investigated separately. These results suggest that the temporal structure of training, such as multiple short daily sessions instead of one long session, can meaningfully impact measurement of animals' capacity to forget and remember.

Emergency planning and business continuity: why blood services must plan for both. How the EBA working group (WG) is assisting blood services

BackgroundIn 2016, the Executive of the European Blood Alliance (EBA) decided to explore whether there was sufficient interest amongst member countries on whether they saw value in the re‐establishment of a Working Group on contingency planning. A survey of members was carried out and as there was sufficient interest a Working Group (WG) was established. The question then was how could the work of the WG add value to member countries in their contingency planning process? We set out to establish this.MethodMembers of the WG decided that there were three areas where the WG should concentrate on and these were as follows: (1) share lessons learnt during past contingencies and response to major disasters, (2) exchange contingency plans and (3) test run of contingency plans. As a first step, it was decided that we would share our existing contingency plans and when these were shared the WG undertook to carry out a gap analysis. It became evident that the state of contingency planning varied across countries. It is vitally important that each BTS ensures that their critical functions of manufacturing, testing and supply management have contingency arrangements in place whether that is within the country or with an international partner. However, having them in place is not enough they must be tested on a regular basis to ensure that they work. It was important that the WG formulated formal terms of reference to inform its work and also to set out clear deliverables. Draft Terms of Reference (ToR) were drawn up and sent to the Board of the EBA for approval in line with the normal procedure for WGs. These have been approved by the Board and are as follows: To share and leverage the knowledge of EBA members so all can move towards best practice (e.g. ISO 22301) To share experience, documentation, risk and other relevant materials and identify common training needs and opportunities. To identify opportunities for mutual aid in business continuity and emergency planning processes, consumables and the provision of services and products and develop these into agreed heads of agreement in bilateral or multilateral mutual aid arrangements. To create routes and mechanisms of communication on business continuity and emergency planning issues between EBA members, and to maintain a forum for discussion on these matters (e.g. EBA newsletter, EBAse). To engage in and lead the conversation on business continuity and emergency planning with the Commission and Competent Authorities to ensure a workable and consistent approach across EBA member states. OutcomeThe work of the group will deliver a better understanding of contingency planning with tangible examples and case studies which demonstrate how these plans have been activated and the lessons learnt from the events that required their activation. Some of the lessons learnt to date are that (1) there can never be too much communication on the contingency arrangements and there must be deputies in place for the main functional leads in the plan because inevitably the event occurs at a weekend where the nominated people are not always available, (2) the carrying out of a desktop exercise can be very useful and can expose any shortcomings in the contingency plan in a safe environment and (3) communication between the BTS and their contingency partner must ensure that any changes by either party are communicated so that any impact is worked through. The work of the WG is continuing.

A test of three basic assumptions of Situational Leadership® II Model and their implications for HRD practitioners

PurposeThis study aims to test the following three assertions underlying the Situational Leadership® II (SLII) Model: all four leadership styles are received by followers; all four leadership styles are needed by followers; and if there is a fit between the leadership style a follower receives and needs, that follower will demonstrate favorable scores on outcome variables.Design/methodology/approachFor the first and second assertions, a proportional breakdown of the four leadership styles observed within a sample of working professionals is presented and discussed. Regarding the third assertion, for ten outcome variables, multiple one-way analyses of variance tested mean differences between followers who experienced leadership style fit (i.e. a fit between received and needed style) and followers who did not experience fit (n = 573). Subscale scores from the Leader Action Profile, the Work Intention Inventory, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale and an adapted form of the Affective/Cognitive trust scale (McAllister, 1995) were used as study measures.FindingsThree of the four leadership styles of the SLII framework were reported as frequently received. All four of the leadership styles were reported as needed. This study also found that follower-reported fit between one’s needed and received leadership style at work resulted in more favorable scores on nine of the ten employee outcomes, as compared to follower-reported misfit.Practical implicationsAs human resource development practitioners seek to educate and train their leaders on how to be more effective with their direct reports, this research provides evidence that all four styles are needed and received, although there were lower instances of reporting the S1 style to be needed or received. Also, the findings demonstrated that when followers view a fit exists between the leadership behaviors they need and the leadership behaviors they receive, greater positive job affect, lower negative job affect, increased cognitive and affective trust in the leader and higher levels of favorable employee work intentions were evident.Originality/valueThis paper builds on the resurgence of studies examining initiating structure and consideration as leader behaviors. This is one of very few recent studies that, by combining initiating structure and consideration, reinvestigates the four leadership styles established by past contingency theories. Specifically, the authors used the SLII framework as a foundation for analysis. Overall, the study supports three of the major assumptions of the SLII framework.

Say-Do Correspondence in Brand Choice: Interaction Effects of Past and Current Contingencies

Not much is known about the interaction effects between current and past contingencies. At the brand level, consumers may or may not buy exactly what they bought or intended to buy on their last shopping trip, and this could be due to differences in the behavioral contingencies. The main purpose of this article was to examine possible relations between what consumers say about the brands they bought last and what they intend to buy, which is a way of measuring part of their learning history with brands, and their actual purchases, taking into account the programmed reinforcement contingencies (marketing strategies) at the point of sale. With a quasiexperimental procedure at a typical retail store, results showed, in general, that current and past contingencies interact and have different impacts on say-do correspondence, which can be explained by the behavioral perspective model of consumer behavior.

At Home in the Great Northern Wilderness: African Americans and Freedom's Ecology in the Adirondacks, 1846-1859

Abstract In the fall of 1846, the first of 3,000 African American settlers set foot on their 40-acre plots in the Great Northern Wilderness of New York State, a place we now call the “forever wild” wilderness of the Adirondack State Park. These black settlers were the initial wave of a social experiment meant to destroy both slavery and, more generally, racism throughout the entire United States through the redemptive practice of a utopian agrarianism. The settlers understood that nature and culture, wilderness and society, were thickly, dialectically intertwined. And they weren't alone: their efforts were seeded by the white abolitionist, Gerrit Smith; fertilized by the utopian socialist communes that covered the Northeast in the 1840s; and nurtured by abolitionists, both black and white. To United States environmental history, I add two threads less frequently seen: African American history and an intellectual history of radical politics. Following these threads has led me beyond the disciplinary confines of history and into larger debates about the cultural politics of wilderness. In this article I argue that the critical wilderness paradigm currently reigning both in and beyond historical scholarship has obscured nuanced, sometimes radical visions of the natural world. Instead of an ironic, deconstructed notion of a troubling wilderness, I suggest another heuristic, the ecology of freedom, which highlights past contingency and hope, and can furthermore help guide our present efforts, both scholastic and activist, to find an honorable, just way of living on the earth.

What is the status of the concept "history of reinforcement", frequently used in behavior analysis?

The main objective of this work is to make a distinction between the conceptual uses that behavior analysis has made of the concept history of reinforcement. Within behavior analysis this concept is often employed to refer to the effects that the exposition to past contingencies has on the behavior elicited by current reinforcement contingencies. Nonetheless, if reinforcement history is proposed as an explicative variable of the current behavior, this concept has no applicability given that, by definition, this variable does not operate on current contingencies. Now, if reinforcement history is understood as a specific kind of relation between behavior and environment, a relation that has been established in a particular moment and that continues or integrates as an effective way of behavior within the present contingencies, the concept would be given a molar explanation status, which is acceptable. By not making this distinction is to commit what Ryle (1949) considers a categorical mistake, with grave implications for experimental practices as well as for the applied fields.

¿Cuál es el estatus del concepto “historia de reforzamiento”, de uso frecuente en el análisis de la conducta?

The main objective of this work is to make a distinction between the conceptual uses that behavior analysis has made of the concept history of reinforcement. Within behavior analysis this concept is often employed to refer to the effects that the exposition to past contingencies has on the behavior elicited by current reinforcement contingencies. Nonetheless, if reinforcement history is proposed as an explicative variable of the current behavior, this concept has no applicability given that, by definition, this variable does not operate on current contingencies. Now, if reinforcement history is understood as a specific kind of relation between behavior and environment, a relation that has been established in a particular moment and that continues or integrates as an effective way of behavior within the present contingencies, the concept would be given a molar explanation status, which is acceptable. By not making this distinction is to commit what Ryle (1949) considers a categorical mistake, with grave implications for experimental practices as well as for the applied fields.

A comprehensive literature review of Mode Deactivation Therapy.

Abstract In this article literature published on Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) was reviewed in depth. Several studies were identified that used a common outcome measure of reduction of physical and sexual aggression, other risk related behaviors. Comparisons of MDT and, other standardized approaches typically used in treating aggression in juveniles, were made. The studies involved individual clients and small groups using MDT and comparative methodology. The studies involved varying periods in treatment settings and longitudinal follow ups. The results document a greater degree of treatment success for MDT as compared with a standard Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) or Social Skills Training (SST). These comparisons were made in varying combinations, with observances made with similar subjects or subject groups. The degree of change associated with MDT was highly discernable in the studies, and will be reviewed and evaluated in meta-analysis study in the near future. MDT was developed for an specific age group, (141/2-18) with specific disorders. It has been demonstrated as an effective methodology as an Evidenced Based Psychotherapy. Implications for further outcome and process studies in cognitive therapy are discussed. Keywords: Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT), Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), adolescents, Social Skills Training (SST). Introduction In the process of analysis of MDT, this methodology has been compared to the alternative methodologies and strategies of standard CBT, DBT and SST. This review examined literature delineating the effectiveness of MDT in treating adolescent clients with reactive emotional dysregulation, who presented with behaviors involving parasuicidal acts, sexual offenses other aggression. Case studies involved clients with complicated histories of sexual, physical, or emotional abuse, as well as neglect, and multi-axial diagnoses. Data indicates that MDT is effective in reducing the rate of physical and sexual aggression across treatment. MDT is an evidenced based treatment developed to treat adolescents with problems relating to conduct, personality and aggression. It is an empirically based therapy, rooted in CBT, DBT, (Linehan, 1993), and Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP), ([Kohlenberg & Tsai, 1993] Apsche & Ward 2003). Elements from Functional Analytic Behavioral Therapy MDT also incorporates principles from Functional Analytic Behavioral Therapy (Kohlenberg and Tsai, 1993). First, MDT aligns with FAB in affirming that perceptions of reality and unconscious motivations evolve from past contingencies of reinforcement, such as families of origin. Second, MDT uses an assessment and Case Conceptualization method that combines elements from Beck's (1996) case conceptualization and the Factor Analytic Behavior Therapy model of Nezu, Nezu, Friedman and Haynes (1998). The assessment and case conceptualization procedure concentrates on core beliefs, fears and avoidance behaviors that are reflective of the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and developing personality disorders, (Apsche & Ward Bailey, 2003, 2004b, 2004c). Unique Qualities of MDT One crucial difference between Mode Deactivation Therapy and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is that the core beliefs (or schemas) of the individual are not seen and challenged as dysfunctional because this action necessarily invalidates the person's life experience. Instead, in MDT, core beliefs are consistently validated as legitimate creations from the person's life experience (no matter how irrational and even if they have little more than a tiny grain of truth), which are then balanced through the collaborative therapeutic process to deactivate the maladaptive mode responses. Another difference between MDT and CBT is that MDT uses the balance the belief technique to remediate the youth's emotional dysreguation. …

Already Filtered: Affective Immersion and Personality Differences in Accessing Present and Past

Schemas contribute to adaptation, filtering novelty though knowledge-expectancy structures, the residue of past contingencies and their consequences. Adaptation requires a balance between flexible, dynamic context-sensitivity and the cognitive efficiency that schemas afford in promoting persistent goal pursuit despite distraction. Affects can form and disrupt schemas. Transient affective experiences systematically alter selectivity of attentiveness to the directly experienced present environment, the internal environment, and to the stored experiences of memory. Enduring personal stylistic predispositions, like implicit motives and affective schemas, influence how experience is perceived, responded to, and integrated; they shape memory and influence present experiential patterns, individually and intersubjectively. Such systematic influences are potential sources of error in the study of memory if not mapped; so far, individual personality differences have just been a source of complication in the literature on emotion-congruent perception and memory. I synthesize what findings there are about how personality differences, emotions, and affects contribute to the structuring and integration of perceptions and memories both directly and by way of hot, affectively-anchored schemas. Case studies from experimental and personality psychology highlight a conception of personality and affective experience relevant to memory research and cognitive science.

Mode deactivation therapy (MDT): A theoretical case analysis on a suicidal adolescent.

This case study presents a case study of the effectiveness of Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) (Apsche, Bass, Jennings, Murphy, Hunter, and Siv, 2005) with an adolescent male, with reactive conduct disorder, PTSD and 8 lethal suicide attempts. The youngster was hospitalized four times for suicide attempts, three previous placements in residential treatment centers. MDT is a form of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) that combines the balance of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) (Linehan, 1993), the importance of perception from functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) (Kohlenberg & Tsai, 1993), and A.T. Beck's (1996) mode theory with a methodology to address the adolescents' belief system. MDT has been shown to be effective in a descriptive study with CBT (Apsche & Ward, 2002). The analysis of this case will illustrate the potential effectiveness of MDT as applied an actively suicidal adolescent. Keywords: Adolescent, MDT, Suicide, Conduct Disorder, Personality Disorder. ********** Introduction Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) as an applied CBT methodology was developed for adolescents with reactive conduct disorder and/or personality disorders/ traits. MDT is targeted for adolescents with a complicated history of abuse, neglect, and multi-axial diagnoses. Many of these adolescents are victims of sexual, physical, and/ or emotional abuse, as well as neglect. They have developed personality traits as survival coping strategies. These personality disorders and/or traits are not true to their cluster, or are cluster bound, meaning that they are translated into beliefs and schemas that are inclusive of beliefs from all three personality disorder clusters. Often it has been thought that individuals with personality disorders stay true to their cluster (Beck, Freeman, and Associates, 1991), which is not true with the adolescent typology as represented by Charles case in this case analysis. Often CBT, as viewed by arguing or challenging the concepts of cognitive distortions, fails with these youngsters (Beck, Freeman, Davis and Associates, (1994). Freeman, A., Preter, J., Fleming, B.A, and Simion, K. M., (1990) Cognitive therapy as normally practiced will eventually trigger a negative reaction by the reactive youngsters. They perceive the therapist as another person attempting to change them from a system of defenses that has been developed to protect them. MDT was developed in response to the need for more effective treatment for this specific adolescent typology. MDT has been shown to be more effective than standardized normalized CBT in a descriptive study (Apsche and Ward, 2002). MDT has also been demonstrated as effective in a series of case studies (Apsche, Ward, Evile, 2002 a & b; Apsche and Ward Bailey, 2003) and a empirical study (Apsche, Bass, Siv, 2005). Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) (Apsche and Ward Bailey, 2003) as an applied CBT methodology aims to address reactive conduct disorders and personality disorders/ traits. MDT is based on A.T. Beck's (1996) mode model, with aspects of other therapies, including functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) (Kohlenberg and Tsai, 1993) and dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) (Linehan, 1993). Additionally, there are areas of MDT which reflect concepts of schema therapy (Young, Klosko, and Weishaar, 2003). The theoretical underpinnings of mode deactivation therapy are based on A.T. Beck's model of modes. In his article Beyond Belief: A Theory of Modes, Personality, and Psycho-pathology (1996), A.T. Beck defines modes as specific suborganizations of the basic systems of the mind. Specifically, suggesting that people learn from unconscious experiential components and cognitive structural processing components. Functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) (Kohlenberg and Tsai, 1993) theory focuses on the deeper unconscious motivations that were formed as a result of past contingencies of reinforcement. …

Ricordo, Gift, Golden Bowl

In Henry James's The Golden Bowl, the precluded hunt for the titular gift subverts Prince Amerigo's fantasy of a break with the past by allegorizing its critical liveliness even, or especially, in present efforts to make it nothing, to obscure its records, and to deny its eruptive traces. James plays with the value of "nothing," associating it with Amerigo's dreamt-of liberation from the burden of denying past contingencies and making it a lively allusion to the Prince and Charlotte's forestalled romance. The unbought, fissured bowl figures the impossible realization of the promise of "nothing" in all its competing resistances to sense.

Mode Deactivation Therapy: A theoretical case analysis (Part III).

This is the first part of a case study presenting a single case analysis of an 18 year-old African -American male. It also presents a theoretical analysis of the case implementing Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) (Apsche, Ward, & Evile, 2002). MDT is a form of CBT that combines the balance of DBT with a methodology to address the adolescents' belief system. MDT has been shown to be effective in a descriptive study with CBT (Apsche & Ward, 2002). The analysis of MDT while reviewing this case presents an opportunity to understand the development of mdt, while reviewing it's effectiveness with this case. The individual in this case, John, was a troubled youngster. He had been the recipient of severe and pervasive physical abuse by his mother and father. He and his sister were neglected and abandoned as children at the age of 5 years old. John developed a complex system of personality disorder beliefs to cope with his world. These beliefs had led John to commit numerous violent acts as a sexual offense. This theoretical case study represents the beginning of mode deactivation therapy from theory to clinical practice. He was treatment savvy and was able to define basic cognitive therapy techniques but would engage in dialectical debates about distortions and would negatively engage his therapist who suggested that he distorted information. ********** INTRODUCTION The development of Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) as an applied CBT methodology has been a challenge. The difficulty begins in the attempt to treat adolescents with complicated history and multi-axial diagnoses. Many of the adolescents that we treat are victims of sexual, physical, and/ or emotional abuse. These individuals have developed survival coping strategies. Many of these survival mechanisms translate into personality traits and/or disorders. These personality traits and/or disorders are not cluster bound. Meaning that they are translated into beliefs and schemas that are inclusive of beliefs from all three clusters. Often it has been thought that individuals stay true to their cluster, this is not so, with the adolescent typology that we treat. The concepts of mode deactivation therapy (MDT) are derived from many aspects of functional analytic behavioral therapy (FAP), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). The focus of MDT is largely based on Beck's recent area of research and application, the system of modes (Beck, 1996, Alford and Beck, 1997). Functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) (Kohlenberg & Tsai, 1993) theory states people act based on reinforcement contingencies. Although FAP takes into consideration that cognitions are involved, the focus is on the deeper unconscious motivations that were formed as a result of past contingencies. Perception is based on past contingencies, therefore, reality and the concept of reality reflects what has been experienced in the past. Considering reinforcement history in the context of a person provides a more complete assessment of a person and specific behaviors. By restructuring beliefs, MDT addresses underlying perceptions that may be applicable to setting in motion the mode related charge of aberrant schemes, that enable the behavior integration of DBT principles, (Linehan, 1993) of treating of sex offending or aggressive behaviors. Many of Linehan's teachings describe radical acceptance and examining the in each client's perceptions. This methodology of finding the grain of truth in the perception of the adolescent is at the crux of MDT. We also borrow radical acceptance in the form of helping the youth accept who he is based on his beliefs. The other major similarity between DBT and MDT is the use of balancing the dichotomous or dialectical thinking of the client. Often CBT as viewed by arguing the concepts of cognitive distortions fails with these youngsters. They do not respond to being in a one-down position, no matter how aligned they are with their therapist. …

Mode Deactivation Therapy: A theoretical case analysis (Part I).

This is the first part of a case study presenting a single case analysis of an 18 year-old African -American male. It also presents a theoretical analysis of the case implementing Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) (Apsche, Ward, & Evile, 2002). MDT is a form of CBT that combines the balance of DBT with a methodology to address the adolescents' belief system. MDT has been shown to be effective in a descriptive study with CBT (Apsche & Ward, 2002). The analysis of MDT while reviewing this case presents an opportunity to understand the development of mdt, while reviewing it's effectiveness with this case. The individual in this case, John, was a troubled youngster. He had been the recipient of severe and pervasive physical abuse by his mother and father. He and his sister were neglected and abandoned as children at the age of 5 years old. John developed a complex system of personality disorder beliefs to cope with his world. These beliefs had led John to commit numerous violent acts as a sexual offense. This theoretical case study represents the beginning of mode deactivation therapy from theory to clinical practice. He was treatment savvy and was able to define basic cognitive therapy techniques but would engage in dialectical debates about distortions and would negatively engage his therapist who suggested that he distorted information. ********** INTRODUCTION The development of Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) as an applied CBT methodology has been a challenge. The difficulty begins in the attempt to treat adolescents with complicated history and multi-axial diagnoses. Many of the adolescents that we treat are victims of sexual, physical, and/ or emotional abuse. These individuals have developed survival coping strategies. Many of these survival mechanisms translate into personality traits and/or disorders. These personality traits and/or disorders are not cluster bound. Meaning that they are translated into beliefs and schemas that are inclusive of beliefs from all three clusters. Often it has been thought that individuals stay true to their cluster, this is not so, with the adolescent typology that we treat. The concepts of mode deactivation therapy (MDT) are derived from many aspects of functional analytic behavioral therapy (FAP), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). The focus of MDT is largely based on Beck's recent area of research and application, the system of modes (Beck, 1996, Alford and Beck, 1997). Functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) (Kohlenberg & Tsai, 1993) theory states people act based on reinforcement contingencies. Although FAP takes into consideration that cognitions are involved, the focus is on the deeper unconscious motivations that were formed as a result of past contingencies. Perception is based on past contingencies, therefore, reality and the concept of reality reflects what has been experienced in the past. Considering reinforcement history in the context of a person provides a more complete assessment of a person and specific behaviors. By restructuring beliefs, MDT addresses underlying perceptions that may be applicable to setting in motion the mode related charge of aberrant schemes, that enable the behavior integration of DBT principles, (Linehan, 1993) of treating of sex offending or aggressive behaviors. Many of Linehan's teachings describe radical acceptance and examining the "truth" in each client's perceptions. This methodology of finding the grain of truth in the perception of the adolescent is at the crux of MDT. We also "borrow" radical acceptance in the form of helping the youth accept who he is based on his beliefs. The other major similarity between DBT and MDT is the use of balancing the dichotomous or dialectical thinking of the client. Often CBT as viewed by "arguing" the concepts of cognitive distortions fails with these youngsters. They do not respond to being in a one-down position, no matter how aligned they are with their therapist. …

Mode deactivation: A functionally based treatment, theoretical constructs.

The theoretical constructs of Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) are based on the Mode Model (Beck, 1996), suggesting that people learn from unconscious experiential components and cognitive structural processing components. Therefore, to change behavior of individuals there must be a restructuring of the experiential components and a corresponding cognitive reformation of the structural components. MDT is an empirically based methodology that systematically assesses and restructures dysfunctional compound core beliefs. By restructuring these beliefs, MDT addresses underlying perceptions that may be applicable to setting in motion the mode related charge of aberrant schemas, that enable the behavior integration of Dialectic Behavioral Therapy (DBT) principles (Linehan, 1993) of treating of sex offending or aggressive behavior (Kohlenberg & Tsai, 1993). The Mode Deactivation framework also utilizes the case conceptualization methodology and emphasizes a team approach in working with clients; particularly those with reactive emotional dysregulation, which includes parasuicidal acts and aggression. The case conceptualization is systematically designed to provide functionally based treatment to complex emotional, thought, and behavior disorders. The following article demonstrates this comprehensive process and delineates the procedures used to develop the case within the mode deactivation theoretical perspective. *********** The development of Mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) has been a challenge both theoretically and clinically. The difficulty begins in the attempt to treat adolescents with complicated history and multiaxial diagnoses. Many of the adolescents that we treat are victims of sexual, physical, and/or emotional abuse. These individuals have developed survival coping strategies. Many of these survival mechanisms translate into personality traits and/or disorders. These personality traits and/or disorders are not cluster bound, meaning that they are translated into beliefs and schemas that are inclusive of beliefs from all three clusters. Often it has been thought that individuals stay true to their cluster, this is not so, with the adolescent typology that we treat. The concepts of mode deactivation therapy (MDT) are derived from many aspects of functional analytic behavioral therapy (FAP), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). The focus of MDT is largely based on Beck's recent area of research and application, the system of modes (Alford and Beck, 1997; Beck, 1996). Functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) (Kohlenberg & Tsai, 1993) theory states that people act based on reinforcement contingencies. Although FAP takes into consideration that cognitions are involved, the focus is on the deeper unconscious motivations that were formed as a result of past contingencies. Perception is based on past contingencies, therefore, reality and the concept of reality reflects what has been experienced in the past. Considering reinforcement history in the context of a person provides a more complete assessment of a person and specific behaviors. By restructuring beliefs, MDT addresses underlying perceptions that may be applicable to setting in motion the mode related charge of aberrant schemas that enable the behavior integration of DBT principles (Linehan, 1993) of treating of sex offending or aggressive behaviors. Many of Linehan's teachings describe radical acceptance and examining the in each client's perceptions. This methodology of finding the grain of truth in the perception of the adolescent is at the crux of MDT. We also borrow radical acceptance in the form of helping the youth accept who he is based on his beliefs. The other major similarity between DBT and MDT is the use of balancing the dichotomous or dialectical thinking of the client. Often CBT as viewed by arguing the concepts of cognitive distortions fails with these youngsters. …

Imminence and Immanence: Isabel Archer's Temporal Predicament in The Portrait of a Lady

Imminence and Immanence: Isabel Archer's Temporal Predicament in The Portrait of a Lady Jonathan Warren, University of Toronto That Henry James charges Isabel Archer with a vast potential in The Portrait of a Lady has been richly noted by critics who have exploited the role of the young American girl in connection with James's international theme. Isabel Archer is easily read as an emblem of the future in a landscape of the past. However, a more rigorous analysis reveals that this appreciation is insufficient. Isabel is, most definitely, imbued with futurity, but this aspect is defied by her peculiar attachment to the past. In James's figuring of Isabel's early contexts, in the manner of her description by others, and in her own words Isabel is revealed as an icon of imminence confounded by stasis. Isabel's appeal to futurity is undermined by the fact that the future seems, in this novel, like it will never arrive: James describes Isabel's environment, history, and character as never-changing. Her great promise is persistently suspended and postponed; her potential remains just that, potential. When Isabel finally acts, she thinks that she does so in accordance with her historically futural, but always-postponed role: she promises herself openly to Osmond. In doing so, Isabel appeals to an indeterminate future that no longer exists for her simply because Osmond is not the vastly futural figure that she has imagined him to be. Rather, Osmond is the very essence of past contingency and treachery. Isabel eventually realizes Osmond's and Merle's duplicitous history, and, by doing so, she recognizes that the past is not an unchanging eternity that subsumes the present and forever puts off the future. Isabel's difficult reconciliation of this personally baffling temporal schism, as revealed through her second promise, offers a new explanation of her ultimate choice. The apparent absence of temporal progress, which characterizes Isabel, is an aspect of Jamesian fiction that Georges Poulet, of the so-called Geneva school, has explained as a necessary reduction of the otherwise stupefying immensity of James's sprawling consciousness.1 All considerations of Jamesian time must now The Henry James Review 14 (1993): 1-16 © 1993 by The Johns Hopkins University Press The Henry James Review necessarily engage Poulet's watershed commentaries on the subject.2 That Poulet chooses to focus exclusively on the issue of time is itself exceptional in James studies. Jamesian critics who cite Poulet tend either generally to accept his interpretations of time or to situate his work in other nontemporal contexts.3 This study implicitly questions Poulet's conclusions on Jamesian time specifically. In The Portrait of a Lady, Isabel Archer resists the obliterative onslaught of time only to be confronted with a crisis of understanding that, according to Poulet, such resistance should have prevented. Instead, Isabel's crisis is precipitated by her resistance to time. In this way, Isabel emerges here as a symbol of Poulet's misreading of Jamesian time. From the outset of The Portrait of a Lady, the context of the action is rendered as putatively eternal: eerily undaunted and unaffected by the passage of time. Indeed, the passage of time is not evoked so much as is the idyllic synchrony of the eternal moment, which the tick tock of a progression does not seem to affect ; moreover, in James's figurai language the advance of time is often not a progression at all, but an ancillary—almost aesthetic —aspect of a world that shall not advance out of a plenary instant, an instant that subsumes the temporal and apparently discharges its force.4 The establishing scene provides a fine example of this static aspect: "Part of the afternoon had waned, but much of it was left, and what was left was of the finest and rarest quality. . . . From five o'clock to eight is on certain occasions a little eternity; but on such an occasion as this the interval could be only an eternity of pleasure (PL I)." The gathering on the lawn takes place during a little eternity that occupies the present moment between what has waned into the past and what is left. There is certainly...

Historical factors in the development of ETOH-conditioned place preference

Three groups of male Sprague-Dawley rats were conditioned with ethanol (ETOH) and water in a Conditioned Place Preference task. to assess the contribution of prior drug/behavioral history on the relative hedonic valence of ETOH, the three groups differed in the task demands and degree of prior ETOH exposure. One group was trained to self-administer 20% w/v ETOH in a home-cage self-administration task using a “Samson sucrose-fading” procedure prior to place conditioning trials (Group SA/CPP). A second group was initially trained in a two-choice ETOH-Saline drug discrimination (DD) task and subsequently conditioned in the place preference paradigm (Group DD/CPP). The third group of rats had no history of drug exposure and were experimentally naive prior to the place learning task (Group NH/CPP). Group SA/CPP developed a significant conditioned place preference; Group DD/CPP failed to demonstrate either a preference or aversion, whereas the Group NH/CPP demonstrated a significant place aversion. Data suggest that both present and past contingencies contribute to the algebraic summation of ETOH's hedonic valences.

Strategies for Maintaining Change Over Time

Relapse following a behaviour modification program is not unusual, especially when contingencies indigenous to the system tend to favor baseline performance. To avoid such a risk, a preliminary analysis of current and past contingencies operating within the system needs to be conducted. Sometimes, alterations need to be made to permit specific strategies of change to match system demands. Important to examine also are the target response's schedule history, contemporary rates, degree of fluency, intrinsically reinforcing and/or punishing properties and the stimuli, such as rules, routine events and others that set the stage for its occurrence. Rule governance and time management may be especially helpful in the latter regard. Ultimately, lasting change depends upon both the immediate and ultimate long range impact of an intervention upon a system. Benefits must outweigh costs right away and later on, and be clearly reflected on the bottom line.

The contingency model of leadership: An extension to emergent leadership and leader's sex

Fiedler's ( Fiedler, F. E. A theory leadership effectiveness New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967 ) contingency theory of leadership was both developed and has been tested solely in situations characterized by appointed leaders. The theory has also rarely, if ever, been tested for female leaders. A field study was designed to extend the contingency model to situations in which leaders emerged from their groups (i.e., no leader was designated a priori) and to assess its predictability in this situation for both male and female leaders. Forty-two task groups were used in a field situation deduced to be Octant II in Fiedler's (1967) model. Key methodological criticisms of past contingency model research were addressed in the present design in order to enhance internal validity. Those persons who emerged as leaders of their groups had LPC scores significantly ( p < .001) lower than nonleaders and had the lowest LPC scores in 74% of the groups. Essentially similar LPC scores were found for male and female emergent leaders, thus producing the lone statistically significant correlation between LPC and group performance in Octant II of the contingency model, including developmental and antecedent research. An additional analysis, relating LPC scores, cognitive complexity, and emergent leaders' behavioral characteristics, showed that leaders were cognitively simple but remained task oreinted. This finding directly conflicts with Fiedler's ( Fiedler, F. E. Human Relations, 1972 25, 391–412) “goal hierarchy” explanation of the underlying meaning of the LPC score. Implications of the findings for leadership situations in applied settings and directions for future research are noted.