Passive Fire Protection Research Articles

Passive fire protection of wood using some bio-derived fire retardants

In the present paper, we report on some preliminary findings relating to the passive fire protection efficiencies of some bio-inspired substrates, which included: starch, chitosan, rice bran and fish gelatin. With a view to enhancing the passive fire protection attributes of the substrates, we prepared formulations of them with both inorganic and organic additives, the latter constituted phosphorus-containing compounds with the phosphorus atom in different chemical environments. We also chose several thermal and calorimetric techniques for evaluating the efficacies of such formulations, such as: thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA), pyrolysis combustion flow calorimetry (PCFC), a proprietary ignition propensity test and cone calorimetry. In addition, with a view to deciphering the elements of condensed phase mechanism, we carried out an estimation of the extents of phosphorus retention (through inductively-coupled/optical emission spectroscopy: ICP/OES) and chemical nature (via solid-state NMR and Raman spectroscopies) of the char residues that were obtained through cone calorimetric runs. The preliminary results of our investigations indicated that formulations based on fish gelatin endowed with the best fire protection property, followed by chitosan, whereas potato starch and rice bran seem to be ineffective as fire proofing agents.

Development of lightweight fire resistant sandwich panel

Fire resistant panel is one of the crucial element used to construct building components such as fire partition wall, fire door and ceiling. These fire resistant building components function as passive fire protection method to prevent the spread of smoke and fire, and to allow emergency escape of dwellers. Current challenges associated with existing fire resistant panels are heavy, labor and time inefficient. In this research fire resistant sandwich panels which are lighter in density were invented without compromising the fire resistant performance. Three fire resistant sandwich panels with various thickness were produced for two hours fire rated testing. Fire resistant sandwich panels were fabricated using respective mix proportion of vermiculite and consolidated with intumescent binder via molding techniques. Temperature profiles of fire resistant panels were recorded, plotted and analyzed. Fire resistant sandwich panel with optimum outcomes was determined by density, fire resistant performance, heat transmission rate, adhesion strength and flexural strength. Fire resistant sandwich panel Z obtained the best results in overall. Fire panel Z achieved a maximum temperature at only 83.2 ºC in the Bunsen burner test, indicating a higher fire resistivity with lower heat transmission rate. Panel Z had the highest flexural strength and better fire endurance and yet with the lowest density of 578.98 kg/m3. This research revealed formulation of fire-resistant sandwich panel was the key manipulating factor to density and fire resistivity.

Heritage Buildings Fires: Their challenges and consideration of fire safety protection

Heritage buildings represent state of the art at the time of their construction. Materials used that are often viewed critically today concerning fire safety. Preventive measures and any other active systems can prevent untoward incidences to heritage buildings. So, for a sound fire safety concept, several considerations can be made. Hence, by reviewing two heritage buildings that involved in the fire which are Shuri Okinawa Castle and Paris Notre Dame Cathedral, this paper is aimed to establish challenges faced by historical building in the event of a fire by referring to the selected case study and to determine whether minimal intervention imposed in passive fire protection provided in the premises is a good practice so that can be referred by others heritage buildings.Keywords: Fire Safety; Fire Protection; Heritage Buildings; Minimum InterventioneISSN: 2398-4287 © 2020. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v5i13.2091

Structural fire resistance of partially restrained, partially composite floor beams, I: Experiments

This paper is Part 1 of a two-part investigation of the structural fire resistance of a partially composite, one-way spanning steel floor beam assembly with partial translational and rotational end restraint provided by shear tab connections to a supporting frame. The goal of this study is to provide experimental data and validated numerical models that can aid the implementation of performance-based design and evaluation approaches for structural fire resistance of steel-framed composite floor systems that are typical of North American building practice. This paper describes a pair of experimental tests on structurally identical composite floor specimens that are subjected to fire via a large modular furnace. A subsequent companion paper (Part 2) presents the numerical studies. One specimen was designed to conform to a 2-h fire rating as prescribed by UL Design No. D902 – the other was tested with no passive fire protection (i.e. as bare steel). Both specimens were flexurally loaded and tested to structural failure under exposure to the ASTM E119 standard fire, and the experimental results are evaluated using the ASTM E119 thermal and structural failure criteria. The test results show similar correlations of midspan deflection to beam temperature for both specimens. The shear tab connections experienced permanent deformation but maintained adequate structural integrity to allow the specimens to reach flexural failure. Neither shear slip nor localized cracking could be visibly detected at the composite stud locations during post-test inspection, indicating that composite action was maintained up to flexural failure.

Finite element study on composite slab-beam systems under various fire exposures

This paper presents an investigation of the thermal performance of composite floor slabs with profiled steel decking exposed to fire effects from floor. A detailed finite-element model has been developed by representing the concrete slab with steel decking under of it and steel beam both steel parts protected by intumescent coating. Although this type of floor systems offers a better fire resistance, passive fire protection materials should be applied when a higher fire resistance is desired. Moreover, fire exposed side is so crucial for composite slab systems as the total fire behaviour of the floor system changes dramatically. When the fire attack from steel parts, the temperature rises rapidly resulting in a sudden decrease on the strength of the beam and decking. Herein this paper, the fire attack side is assumed from the face of the concrete floor (top of the concrete assembly). Therefore, the heat is transferred through concrete to the steel decking and reaching finally to the steel beam both protected by intumescent coating. In this work, the numerical model has been established to predict the heat transfer performance including material properties such as thermal conductivity, specific heat and dry film thickness of intumescent coating. The developed numerical model has been divided into different layers to understand the sensitivity of steel temperature to the number of layers of intumescent coating. Results show that the protected composite floors offer a higher fire resistance as the temperature of the steel section remains below 60C even after 60-minute Standard (ISO) fire and Fast fire exposure. Obtaining lower temperatures in steel due to the great fire performance of the concrete itself results in lesser reductions of strength and stiffness hence, lesser deflections.

A numerical study on the influence of different tunnel lining insulation materials in a road tunnel fire

Various types of passive protection techniques have been investigated for road tunnels. A road tunnel fire is characterized by various parameters; one of the most important parameter is heat release rate (HRR). The heat release rate is considered a key parameter for design of various tunnel fire protection systems such as firefighting system, ventilation, and other passive protection systems. Many references are available from past researchers on heat release rates for different cases, where different type of vehicle/fuel was burned in a road tunnel. Later it was noticed that the heat release rate established by burning of vehicle/fuel in a tunnel gets modified by various other parameters. These parameters includes but not limited to fuel arrangements, tunnel ventilation, tunnel geometry, fixed firefighting system, fire growth rates etc. The passive fire protection systems are usually not considered as affecting heat release rates in tunnel. There is a need to better analyze this parameter in tunnel fires and to see their interaction with tunnel fire. A comparison of road tunnel with and without various passive protections under heavy good vehicle fire is studied by numerical modelling and presented under this study. This study shows tunnel protected with calcium silicate board results in higher temperature and heat fluxes compare to non-protected tunnel and tunnel protected with magnesium oxides/Cement based spray. This indicates that passive fire protection system can alter the thermal conditions inside the tunnel in case of fire.

Development of a paste for passive fire protection mainly composed of granulated blast furnace slag

AbstractIn this study, the behavior of granulated blast furnace slag as a component of passive fire protection materials is evaluated. To investigate the performance of blast furnace slag, different replacement levels from 0 to 80 wt% have been analyzed. Different properties, such as physical, mechanical, and insulating capacity and leaching, have been thoroughly analyzed. Pastes made of a combination of granulated blast furnace slag and gypsum can be potentially used as a component in construction materials for passive protection against fire. The results indicate that the mechanical properties diminish when the slag content increases. It was concluded that replacements lower than 60 wt% comply with all the mechanical demands. A slight reduction of the insulating capacity was observed when the slag content was increased. Additionally, no heavy metal leaching problems have been detected.SignificanceThe current research presents the results of a study to reuse granulated blast furnace slag in fire‐resistant pastes with gypsum. Blast furnace slags decrease the thermal diffusivity of the paste at high temperatures, improving its insulating capacity. It facilitates its use in specific and high‐value applications with similar properties to commercial materials and increases the recycling rate with any heavy‐metal leaching problem.

Predicted temperature development on protected cellular steel beam (CSB) under fire exposure

Purpose This paper aims to investigate the predicted temperature behaviour of the protected cellular steel beam (CSB) with circular web openings at elevated temperature through finite element simulation. Design/methodology/approach Temperature development along the CSB were analysed and used for parametric investigation. In addition, this research paper investigates the novelty application of various intumescent coating thicknesses covering the whole CSB to cut down the temperature development along the beam section. Findings From the simulation outcomes, it shows that intumescent coating has a significant effect in reducing the temperature development along the CSB section. Thicker intumescent coating contributes to a higher temperature drop at the bottom tee section than the upper tee section. Originality/value The use of structural CSB has gained popularity among engineers and architects. This type of beam allows serviceability ducts and pipes to pass through the main steel web section under the flooring system, thus providing larger headroom for designers. Nevertheless, in any structural steel building, it is highly risky for CSB to be exposed to fire hazard if it were triggered accidentally. To mitigate and reduce fire exposure risk which might compromise the strength and stiffness of CSB, a passive fire protection is proposed to minimise the risk. One of the common passive fire protection materials used for steel beam section is intumescent coating. Intumescent coating is by far the cheapest solution to protect CSB as compared to other passive fire protection system. Intumescent coating can absorb some portion of heat exposure which subsequently translates a lower temperature development along the CSB section.

Remaining fire resistance of steel frames following a moderate earthquake – A case study

Post-earthquake damage in cementitious passive fire protection (PFP) systems is a serious fire safety hazard in steel frame structures, because it is unaccounted for at the design stage. This is of greatest concern after small to moderate earthquakes as modern structural components are designed to resist them with no damage. However, PFP systems are not currently subjected to any design regulations for seismic loading and therefore their performance cannot be quantified. Additionally, the inaccessibility of cementitious coatings hampers the evaluation of their remaining fire resistance capacity following earthquakes by means of visual inspections. This paper proposes an integrated multi-hazard framework using finite element analysis (FEA) for assessing the remaining fire resistance capacity of PFP protected steel frame structures subjected to moderate earthquakes. This multi-hazard framework is presented in the open source software environment OpenSEES, and provides structural engineers with a practical solution to access the fire safety concern associated with the PFP damage.

Preparation of Intumescent Fire Protective Coating for Fire Rated Timber Door

Intumescent flame-retardant coating (IFRC) provides a protective barrier to heat and mass transfer for the most efficient utilization of a wide variety of passive fire protection systems at the recent development. This article highlights the fire-resistance, physical, chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties of the IFRC using a Bunsen burner, furnace, Scanning Electron Microscope, freeze-thaw stability test, Instron Micro Tester, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) test. The five IFRC formulations were mixed with vermiculite and perlite for the fabrication of fire-resistant timber door prototypes in this research project. Additionally, the best fire-resistance performance of the fire-rated door prototype was selected and compared with a commercial prototype under the fire endurance test. An inventive fire-rated door prototype (P2), with a low density of 636.45 kg/m3, showed an outstanding fire-resistance rating performance, resulting in temperature reduction by up to 54.9 °C, as compared with that of the commercial prototype. Significantly, a novel fire-rated timber door prototype with the addition of formulating intumescent coating has proven to be efficient in preventing fires and maintaining its integrity by surviving a fire resistance period of 2 h.

Intumescent coatings based on alkali-activated borosilicate inorganic polymers

This paper presents results regarding the possibility of using intumescent alkali-activated borosilicate inorganic polymers (AABSIP), obtained by alkali activation of waste glass powder with mixtures of NaOH, KOH, and borax, as passive fire protection for various substrates. In order to verify the fire behavior, four types of AABSIP intumescent coatings were applied on metal plates and commercial plasterboard and tested in direct contact with a propane flame. The presence of intumescent AABSIP coatings on the metal plates kept the temperature below 500°C (measured on the opposite face where the propane flame was applied); this temperature was critical for the structural strength of steel. AABSIP coating decreased the propagation rate of plasterboard substrate degradation as well as the thermal transfer through the plaster substrate.

Fibre-reinforced intumescent fire protection coatings as a confining material for concrete columns

This paper considers a novel, alternative application of fibre-reinforced epoxy-based intumescent coatings as potential materials for strengthening concrete columns. An experimental programme is presented examining the compressive behaviour of unreinforced concrete cylinders at ambient temperature that are confined with fibre-reinforced intumescent wraps. It is demonstrated that these advanced composite coatings can provide effective passive confinement to concrete, achieving ultimate axial strength and strain enhancements that are comparable to those of conventional FRP wraps. The enhancements are also shown to be reasonably predicted by existing confinement models for FRP-confined concrete. The results demonstrate the strong potential of these fire protection materials as alternative strengthening systems for reinforced concrete columns, potentially eliminating the need for additional passive fire protection that is common with conventional fire-rated FRP wrapping systems.

Numerical analysis of performances of passive fire protections in processing facilities

The oil and gas industry have developed and advanced rapidly over the past few decades and the use of a fire protection system (FPS) in this industry is inevitable. A fire protection system assists in preventing fire occurrence as well as mitigating the consequences of a fire. An FPS can be categorised as active, passive and/or inherent. Effectiveness and performance of FPS relies heavily on the combination of various fire protection systems. Among these fire risk reduction strategies, passive fire protection (PFP) system is one of the most common strategies applied to mitigating fire impact. However, a comparative effectiveness analysis of various PFP systems has not been performed before despite their wide applications. This study presents a numerical assessment of performances of various commonly used PFP materials in oil and gas refinery facilities to determine their effectiveness in preventing fire escalation. Maximum Credible Accident Scenario (MCAS) methodology is used to obtain the three most credible fire scenarios among 27 fire scenarios and they are simulated using Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) software. This study considered 1 cm and 10 cm thickness of PFP. The obtained results are used for the effectiveness analysis of various PFP materials based on maximum heat flux received by equipment and equipment wall temperature. The study revealed that cementitious material and cellular glass have better performance than other considered PFPs in preventing the temperature rise of equipment when exposed to hydrocarbon fires. This study will provide a key insight into PFP selection and optimisation to mitigate fire impact and prevention of fire escalation.

Numerical modelling of heat transfer through protected composite structural members

Among many various types of passive fire protection materials (i.e. plaster boards, sprayed materials and intumescent coatings) thin film intumescent coatings have become the preferable option owing to their good advantages such as flexibility, good appearance (aesthetics), light weight to the structure and fast application. Despite their popularity, there is also a lack of good understanding of fire behaviour. In general, experimental methods are used to push this knowledge with labour and high-energy consumption and extremely expensive processes. With the development of computer technology, numerical models to predict the heat transfer phenomena of intumescent coatings have been developed with time. In this work, the numerical model has been established to predict the heat transfer performance including material properties such as thermal conductivity and dry film thickness of intumescent coating. The developed numerical model has been divided into different layers to understand the sensitivity of steel temperature to the number of layers of intumescent coating and mesh sizes. The temperature-dependent thermal conductivity of intumescent coatings can be calculated based on inverse solution of the equation for calculating temperatures in protected steel according to the Eurocodes (EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2). However, as the temperature distribution in the intumescent coatings is highly non-uniform, that Eurocode equation does not give accurate coating thermal conductivity-temperature relationship for use in numerical heat transfer modelling when the coating is divided into a number of layers, each having its characteristic thermal conductivity values. The comparison study of steel temperature under Standard (ISO 834) and Fast fire conditions against Eurocode analytical solution has also been made by assuming both constant thermal conductivity and variable thermal conductivity. The obtained results show close agreement with the Eurocode solution choosing a minimum certain mesh, number of layer and best-fitted thermal conductivity of the intumescent coating.

Experimental study of epoxy coatings for fire protection of bridge cables

ABSTRACTAn experimental study on the performance of epoxy coatings exposed to different fire conditions was undertaken in order to assess if such paints could be a viable passive fire protection solution for bridge cables. Epoxy paints are of interest for this application due to their high resistance to environmental agents and the capability of resisting hydrocarbon fires. However, recent studies have shown that the performance of water‐ and solvent‐based intumescent coating are strongly affected by the fire condition, and particularly the heating rate, and it is essential to assess if these challenges are also present for epoxy paints. Therefore, two different epoxy coatings were applied to small steel plates and exposed to different constant heat fluxes ranging between 20 and 80 kW/m2 in a cone heater. The results of the experiments are presented in terms of expansion of the coating, temperatures of the substrates and efficiency of the coating, calculated as relative difference between the temperature of an uninsulated sample and a sample coated with the coating. The outcomes of the experiments indicate that there is a dependency between the incident heat flux and the char development and thus the ability to protect the substrate.

Live stack replacement in high-rise residential buildings

There are approximately 4,500 tall buildings under local authority control in the UK. Many were built in the postwar period, which means that refurbishment programmes are required at regular intervals to keep the buildings operational and comfortable for local authority residents. While many refurbishment programmes are focused on the aesthetic properties of a building, there is a growing need to address the drainage systems in high-rise buildings, which can often be overlooked until a problem occurs and is reported. Local authorities can arrive at a situation where essential drainage system maintenance work needs to take place, but can only be completed by moving residents out of buildings temporarily, or to another site altogether. This is a costly undertaking, which often brings a range of unknown factors that can increase the time needed to complete work and the cost of rehousing residents. Manufacturers are beginning to work with networks of approved installers to offer an alternative, more efficient approach and have developed a drainage stack replacement method that takes place section by section within a building, without putting a full drainage system out of commission. The process that has been developed also makes provision to improve the fire protection systems within a building, with a range of passive fire protection products for use with plastic-based drainage systems. This paper outlines the problems found in many high-rise residential buildings under local authority control and sets out a solution, which has been incorporated into a growing number of refurbishment and maintenance programmes, that allows for project cost control, minimises disruption to residents, and provides for effective building fire protection improvements as a matter of course.

Reliability Level Evaluation of Passive Fire Protection System in Hospital Buildings (Case Study: Grandmed Lubuk Pakam Hospital)

This research focuses only on passive fire protection systems in-hospital buildings because the Hospital is public buildings that many people use as facilities for health needs. Hospital residents are not only healthy people, but most sick people are not able to save themselves because of that the building safety system must be reliable especially fire protection systems. This study uses descriptive analysis method by checking directly in the field against the variables that have determined and then analyzed, based on the weight of the AHP method after that each variable and sub-variable will be assessed with a Likert scale according to its suitability with regulations and standards, then weights will be multiplied by the value of conformity to get the reliability value. The results are the level of reliability of the building fire passive protection system 2,250 it includes which in the category enough. This is to increase the value of the level of reliability, it must fulfill the design guidelines in the form of standards.

EVALUATION OF PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS IN SUPERMALL BUILDINGS

Evaluation of a passive fire protection system is an effort to find out how feasible a fire protection system is in a building. One of the main problems arising from fire hazards in mall buildings is fire protection systems that do not meet standards. This study aims to analyze the building fire protection system, with the Sun Plaza Medan case study with a total of six floors and one basement, and located in the city center. The method used in this study is descriptive qualitative and quantitative, with a variable observation stage which is then carried out by a comparison process using the Analytical Hierarchy Process. This AHP method is helpful for researchers to get the results needed. Evaluation results obtained at shopping centers (case studies: Sun Plaza Medan) can be categorized as good, although several components do not meet the standards. Several recommendations were made for changes by testing, to obtain an increase in the value of the reliability of the passive fire protection system in the case study.

Exposure of hydrocarbon intumescent coatings to the UL1709 heating curve and furnace rheology: Effects of zinc borate on char properties

Hydrocarbon intumescent coatings are an efficient means to passive fire protection of steel structures in high-risk environments such as petrochemical plants and offshore platforms. In the present study, the effects of zinc borate on the performance of hydrocarbon intumescent coatings were investigated. The analyses include steel temperature-time relationships and char expansion, as well as structural investigations and compositional profiles of the char. Furthermore, transient rheological coating behaviors and thermal degradation of the coatings were measured and analyzed. Results of furnace experiments, conducted under a standard hydrocarbon fire curve (UL1709), showed that a formulation containing 15 wt.% zinc borate gave the best performance. Fully expanded char measurements and the associated rheological recordings, evidenced that adjusting the zinc borate content from 0 to 20 wt.% increased the dynamic viscosity minimum of the incipient char from 6.2 to 5671.4 Pa⋅s. The increased dynamic viscosity resulted in a more uniform, but less expanded char layer. Compositional profiles of intumescent chars, measured using X-ray Diffraction, showed an increasing phosphate (especially BPO4) content with increasing levels of zinc borate in the intumescent coatings. Finally, the thermogravimetric analyses revealed that zinc borate can help to reduce epoxy binder degradation and oxidation of the carbon-inorganic residue. Due to the health risks associated with borate and its compounds, there is a requirement to find alternatives. The present work has mapped out some of the beneficial properties of zinc borate, and the results may provide some insight as to how to formulate without these compounds in the future.

Evaluation of Fire Safety Officer Competencies on the Reliability of Building Fire Protection and Prevention Systems

High rise buildings can be a safe place for activities when protected by a reliable fire protection system. Fire safety studies are generally focus on active and passive fire protection systems, life-saving and fire evacuation in a building. This study aims to examine fire protection systems from the fire safety officers’ perspective as an important part to ensure that the protection system can function properly and as an initial responder to fire. This study concludes the needs of fire safety officer in a multi-storey building that absolutely necessary as an element of managing the fire protection system and as an initial responder of fire to minimize the impact of property losses and casualties.