Passive Facebook Research Articles

P150: Social media use and well-being with bipolar disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic

Background:Reliable and consistent social support are associated with the mental health and well-being of persons with severe mental illness, including bipolar disorder (BD). Yet the COVID-19 pandemic and associated social distancing measures (e.g., shelter-in-place) reduced access to regular social contacts, while social media use increased concomitantly.Objective:For this study, we had two goals. First we report descriptive information regarding social media use (SMU) by persons with BD during COVID-19 (all platforms). Specific to Facebook, we next developed and tested a hypothesized model in order to identify direct and indirect associations between BD symptoms, social support, loneliness, life satisfaction, and social media use. Responses were collected during the global spread of the Delta variant and prior/concurrent with the Omicron variant, 20 months after the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic.Methods:Over eight weeks, participants were recruited using social media advertising micro- targeted to adults with BD. On average, participants were 53.96 years of age (SD = 13.22, range 20-77 years), they had completed 15.40 years of education (SD = 4.28) and were diagnosed with BD 19.60 years ago (SD = 10.31). Path analysis was performed to develop and test our hypothesized model.Results:Almost all participants (93%) reported having both Facebook and LinkedIn accounts; 91.1% reported regular use of either or both. During the pandemic, most (60.8%) reported accessing social media several times a day; 36% reported using social media more often since the emergence of COVID-19. Specific to Facebook, the model we hypothesized differed somewhat from what emerged. The resulting model suggests that symptoms of depression predict loneliness and inversely, social support and life satisfaction. Social support predicts social Facebook use whereas passive Facebook use predicts life satisfaction. Symptoms of depression emerged as indirect predictors of SMU via social support.Conclusions:Our findings suggest that the operational definition of passive-active SMU requires further analysis and refinement. In contrast to theory, passive Facebook use appears positively correlated with well-being among certain populations. Longitudinal data collection over multiple points is required to identify associations between BD symptoms, social media use and well-being over time.

Content appraisal and age moderate the relationship between passive social media use and mental ill-being.

An important distinction to make when assessing the impact of social media use on mental health is whether the use is passive (e.g., browsing) or active (e.g., posting). Recent research suggests that the connection between passive social media use and mental ill-being is inconsistent, with some research finding a significant negative association, while other research finds no such association. In the present research, we sought to investigate this relationship, as well as two potential moderators of this relationship: the subjective appraisal of social media content social media users consume (i.e., positively or negatively-appraised) and age of users. In a cross-sectional survey of Australian and United States Facebook users (N = 991), there was no direct relationship between passive use and mental ill-being, however user age and positive (but not negative) content appraisal were found to moderate the relationship between passive use and mental ill-being. Specifically, the relationship between passive use and mental ill-being became weaker as subjective positive appraisal increased, and it reversed to become negative at high levels of positive appraisal. Additionally, the positive relationship between passive use and mental ill-being became weaker as age of social media users increased, and the direction of this relationship became negative at the oldest ages of social media users. These results suggest that the relationship between social media use and mental ill-being is more nuanced than previous research suggests. In particular, higher amounts of passive Facebook use may have a less negative, or even a positive effect on social media users' mental health when the content being (passively) consumed is positively appraised, or when users are older.

The relationship between active and passive Facebook use, Facebook flow, depression symptoms and Facebook Addiction: A three-month investigation

• Active Facebook use is positively linked to Facebook Addiction (FA). • There is no significant link between passive Facebook use and FA. • Active Facebook use contributes to the experience of Facebook related flow. • In the longer term, Facebook flow serves as an antecedent of FA. • Particularly individuals with enhanced depression symptoms are at risk for FA. The present study investigated the link of active and passive Facebook use, Facebook flow and depression symptoms with Facebook Addiction (FA). Data of 127 German Facebook users ( M age ( SD age ) = 25.10 (7.03), range: 18–58) were assessed at two measurement time points over a period of three months (first measurement = T1, second measurement = T2) via online surveys. FA (T2) was significantly positively linked to active Facebook use (T1), Facebook flow (T1) and depression symptoms (T1). Its relationship with passive Facebook use (T1) was non-significant. Facebook flow (T1) positively mediated the association between active Facebook use (T1) and FA (T2). In contrast, active Facebook use (T1) did not serve as a mediator between Facebook flow (T1) and FA (T2). Given the non-experimental design of the present study, only hypothetical conclusions on causality can be drawn. Current results demonstrate that active Facebook use could contribute to the experience of flow that serves as an antecedent of FA. This is particularly relevant for individuals with enhanced depression symptoms. The findings should be made a subject of discussion in education and prevention programs, and in therapeutic context.

Social Media Use and Well-being With Bipolar Disorder During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Path Analysis.

BackgroundReliable and consistent social support is associated with the mental health and well-being of persons with severe mental illness, including bipolar disorder (BD). Yet the COVID-19 pandemic and associated social distancing measures (eg, shelter in place) reduced access to regular social contacts, while social media use (SMU) increased concomitantly. Little is currently known about associations between the well-being of adults with BD and different types of SMU (eg, passive and active).ObjectiveFor this study, we had two goals. First, we report descriptive information regarding SMU by persons with BD during COVID-19 (all platforms). Specific to Facebook, we next developed and tested a hypothesized model to identify direct and indirect associations between BD symptoms, social support, loneliness, life satisfaction, and SMU. Responses were collected during the global spread of the Delta variant and prior/concurrent with the Omicron variant, 20 months after the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic.MethodsOver 8 weeks, we obtained responses from an international sample of 102 adults with BD using the Qualtrics online platform. Most had previously participated in the BADAS (Bipolar Affective Disorders and older Adults) Study (n=89, 87.3%); the remainder were recruited specifically for this research (n=13, 2.7%). The subsamples did not differ in age (t100=1.64; P=.10), gender (χ22=0.2; P=.90), socioeconomic status (χ26=9.9; P=.13), or time since BD diagnosis (t97=1.27; P=.21). Both were recruited using social media advertising micro-targeted to adults with BD. On average, participants were 53.96 (SD 13.22, range 20-77) years of age, they had completed 15.4 (SD 4.28) years of education, and were diagnosed with BD 19.6 (SD 10.31) years ago. Path analyses were performed to develop and test our hypothesized model.ResultsAlmost all participants (n=95, 93.1%) reported having both Facebook and LinkedIn accounts; 91.2% (n=93) reported regular use of either or both. During the pandemic, most (n=62, 60.8%) reported accessing social media several times a day; 36.3% (n=37) reported using social media more often since the emergence of COVID-19. Specific to Facebook, the model we hypothesized differed somewhat from what emerged. The resulting model suggests that symptoms of depression predict loneliness and, inversely, social support and life satisfaction. Social support predicts social Facebook use, whereas passive Facebook use predicts life satisfaction. Symptoms of depression emerged as indirect predictors of SMU via social support.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that the operational definition of passive-active SMU requires further analysis and refinement. In contrast to theory, passive Facebook use appears positively associated with well-being among certain populations. Longitudinal data collection over multiple points is required to identify associations between BD symptoms, SMU, and well-being over time.

Does Passive Facebook Use Promote Feelings of Social Connectedness?

Previous research has shown that passive social media use does not have the same positive effects on well-being as active social media use. However, it is currently unclear whether these effects can be attributed to the benefits of active use, the costs of passive use, or both. The current article investigated the effect of active and passive Facebook use on feelings of social connectedness after being ostracized. In two preregistered experiments, participants were first ostracized on a faux social media platform, followed by a measurement of social connectedness. In Experiment 1 they were then instructed to either use Facebook passively, use Facebook actively, or use a non-social website (Wikipedia), after which social connectedness was measured again. Results indicated that active Facebook use can restore social connectedness after being ostracized as compared to using a non-social website. While passive Facebook use also restored social connectedness, it did not change social connectedness significantly more so than Wikipedia use. In Experiment 2, we replicated Experiment 1, now focusing only on passive Facebook use compared to a non-social website. Results showed again that passive Facebook use did not influence social connectedness more so than the use of Wikipedia. In exploratory analyses, we found that for participants who felt close to other Facebook users, passive Facebook use did increase social connectedness compared to using a non-social website. These experiments suggest that, even though passive social media use does not restore social connectedness in the same way that active social media use does, it also does not harm social connectedness, and it may actually promote social connectedness under certain circumstances.

Passive Facebook use and students’ academic stress: The moderating role of authenticity

Objective: The present study examined the association between passive FB use and academic stress, as well as the moderating role of users’ dispositional levels of authenticity. Participants and Methods: A total of 188 college students responded to questionnaires regarding their FB use, trait authenticity, and academic stress. Results: The amount of time users reported they routinely engaged in passive FB use significantly correlated with academic stress. Further, users’ levels of trait authenticity moderated this relationship. Time spent passively using FB was positively associated with academic stress only when user authenticity was high. However, how often students passively use FB was not significantly associated with academic stress regardless of their authenticity levels. Conclusions: These findings suggest that using FB passively for longer time periods might be a way to avoid academic tasks, which in turn might be associated with greater academic stress for those students who report higher levels of authenticity.

Moderating effects of gender and passive Facebook use on the relationship between social interaction anxiety and preference for online social interaction

ABSTRACT In recent years, internet use for online social interaction has dramatically increased among the students. Even though prior studies had confirmed that social interaction anxiety (SIA) can develop one’s preference for online social interaction (POSI) over face-to-face communication, whether the association between SIA and POSI varies with one’s gender and levels of passive Facebook use (PFU) are still unknown. Therefore, to address this knowledge gap, the present study examined the moderating effects of gender and PFU on the association between SIA and POSI among the university students of Bangladesh. Participants were 544 university students (55.9% male and 44.1% female). The study assessed POSI, SIA, PFU, and demographic characteristics of the participants employing cross-sectional study design. The hierarchical regression analysis suggested moderating effects of gender and PFU existed on the association between SIA and POSI. The study argued that male university students with high SIA prefer higher online social interaction than females. This research further argued that the relationship between SIA and POSI was stronger for the students with high passive Facebook use than the students with low passive Facebook use. Since POSI is one of the prime components of problematic internet use (PIU), which can adversely affect individuals’ psychological and physical wellbeing; hence, these results intensify the importance of early and effective interventions for the Bangladeshi university students who are at risk of developing PIU.

Do smartphones and social network sites become more important when experiencing stress? Results from longitudinal data

Previous research on stress and media use mainly concentrated on between-person effects. We add to this research field by additionally assessing within-person associations, assuming that experiencing more stress than usual goes along with more nomophobia (“no-mobile-phone phobia”) and more passive and active Facebook use than usual, cross-sectionally and over time, and by exploring potential age differences. We conducted a secondary analysis of three waves of a representative multi-wave survey of adult Dutch internet users (N = 861). Specifically, we used two subsamples: (1) smartphones users for the analyses on nomophobia (n = 600) and (2) Facebook users for the analyses on social media (n = 469). Employing random-intercept cross-lagged panel models, we found within-person correlations between nomophobia and stress at one time-point, but not over time. For the younger age group (18–39 years), more passive Facebook use than usual was associated with more stress than usual six months later, and more stress than usual was followed by less passive Facebook use six month later. There were no longitudinal relationships for active Facebook use across the different age groups. Methodological and theoretical implications are discussed.

Less Facebook use – More well-being and a healthier lifestyle? An experimental intervention study

Use of the social platform Facebook belongs to daily life, but may impair subjective well-being. The present experimental study investigated the potential beneficial impact of reduction of daily Facebook use. Participants were Facebook users from Germany. While the experimental group (N = 140; Mage(SDage) = 24.15 (5.06)) reduced its Facebook use for 20 min daily for two weeks, the control group (N = 146; Mage(SDage) = 25.39 (6.69)) used Facebook as usual. Variables of Facebook use, life satisfaction, depressive symptoms, physical activity and smoking behavior were assessed via online surveys at five measurement time points (pre-measurement, day 0 = T1; between-measurement, day 7 = T2; post-measurement, day 15 = T3; follow-up 1, one month after post-measurement = T4; follow-up 2, three months after post-measurement = T5). The intervention reduced active and passive Facebook use, Facebook use intensity, and the level of Facebook Addiction Disorder. Life satisfaction significantly increased, and depressive symptoms significantly decreased. Moreover, frequency of physical activity such as jogging or cycling significantly increased, and number of daily smoked cigarettes decreased. Effects remained stable during follow-up (three months). Thus, less time spent on Facebook leads to more well-being and a healthier lifestyle.

Passive Facebook Use and Depression

Abstract. In the current study we examined a psychological mechanism linking Facebook use to depression. A survey was conducted with 319 undergraduates about their passive Facebook use, their frequency of making upward social comparisons on Facebook, the emotions evoked through these comparisons, and their levels of depression. Half of the participants were given questions about the Facebook comparisons they made with their close friends, while the other half were given questions about the Facebook comparisons they made with acquaintances. Analysis of the whole sample revealed that upward Facebook comparison elicited assimilative emotions (inspiration, optimism, and admiration) more than contrastive emotions did (envy and resentment). A path model was developed in which passive use of Facebook predicted the frequency of making upward social comparisons, and, in turn, the frequency of making upward Facebook comparisons predicted depression through two routes: one through contrastive emotions and other through assimilative emotions. The results suggested that the model fits the data. As expected, the frequency of upward Facebook comparisons was associated with the increases in frequency of both contrastive and assimilative emotions, and the associations of these two types of emotions with depression were in opposite directions: Depression increased as the frequency of contrastive emotions increased, and it decreased as the frequency of assimilative emotions increased. The strength of the latter aforementioned association was stronger when the comparison targets were acquaintances rather than close friends.

All my online-friends are better than me – three studies about ability-based comparative social media use, self-esteem, and depressive tendencies

ABSTRACT We conducted three studies to assess short-term and long-term effects of social comparative SNS use on self-esteem and depressive tendencies. In Study 1 (N = 75) we found in an exposure experiment including two experimental groups and one control group that social comparative internet use decreased participants’ performance-oriented state self-esteem as a short-term effect. In Study 2 and 3 (Ns = 809, 145) results of the serial multiple mediator model indicated that passive Facebook use is associated with higher depressive tendencies mediated by a higher ability-related social comparison orientation and lower self-esteem as long-term effect. To obtain more generalisable findings, we transferred the serial multiple mediator model successfully from private to professional SNS use (Study 3).

Active and Passive Facebook Use and Associated Costly Off-line Helping Behavior.

This study examined active and passive Facebook use and the associated costly altruistic behavior. Results supported the hypothesis that social media use, particularly active use, can enhance the perceived relatedness of individuals in need and reduce the influence of genetic relatedness in helping. Passive social media users tended to help kin in both situations involving low and high biological cost, whereas they were less likely to risk themselves to help social media friends and strangers in extraordinary situations involving high biological cost. However, active social media users, who had a broader sense of connectedness with genetically unrelated individuals, were more willing to help social media friends and strangers in both situations involving high and low biological cost.

Through a Screen Darkly: Use of Computer-Mediated Communication Predicts Emotional Functioning.

Despite the pervasive use of computer-mediated communication, relatively little is known about its implications for emotional adjustment. Recent studies suggest that a preference for computer-mediated communication over other types of communication is associated with emotional vulnerabilities, and its active forms (e.g., direct communication) confer psychosocial benefits compared its passive forms (e.g., browsing Facebook). In this study, we simultaneously examined quality, quantity, and preferences for computer-mediated communication in relation to emotional competencies (emotion detection and regulation) and emotional well-being (self-report of mood and anxiety symptoms). In Study 1, participants (N = 123) completed a facial morphing task, a computerized assessment of the speed and accuracy of emotion detection, and the Social Media and Communication Questionnaire assessing quantity and preferences to communicate via computer-mediated communication versus face-to-face. More use of computer-mediated communication along with preferring it for casual communication, was associated with faster and more accurate emotion detection. More use of computer-mediated communication, along with preferring it for positive communication and expressing distress, was associated with more difficulties with emotion regulation. Study 2 (N = 32) added a task-based assessment of active and passive Facebook use in relation to measures of emotional functioning in Study 1. More active Facebook use was associated with greater emotional well-being, whereas more passive Facebook use was associated with less emotional well-being. Active and passive Facebook use was not significantly associated with self-report of broader computer-mediated communication preferences. Together, results suggest that greater use and preference for computer-mediated versus face-to-face communication may be related to heightened emotional sensitivity and more problems with emotion regulation, yet active versus passive use may serve to bolster emotional well-being.

Social comparison orientation mediates the relationship between neuroticism and passive Facebook use

Passive Facebook use, which involves engaging in non-socially orientated behavior on the popular social networking site, is associated with a range of negative outcomes, including social anxiety, loneliness, jealousy, and depressed mood. Research indicates that passive Facebook use may also be related to a tendency to engage in social comparison with others. In addition, there is some evidence that this tendency is more prevalent in individuals high in the personality trait neuroticism. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between passive Facebook use, neuroticism, and social comparison orientation (SCO). In addition, we explored whether SCO mediates the potential relationship between neuroticism and passive Facebook use. In a cross-sectional study, 318 Estonian Facebook users completed the Multidimensional Scale of Facebook Use (to ascertain passive Facebook use), the Extra Short Big Five Personality Inventory, and the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale. The results revealed positive bivariate-correlations between passive Facebook use, neuroticism, and SCO. In addition, SCO mediated the relationship between neuroticism and passive Facebook use. These findings suggest that people higher in neuroticism are more prone to social comparison, which is associated with passive Facebook use. These findings are discussed, and several directions for future research are provided.

Exploring the Interplay Between Passive Following on Facebook, Fear of Missing out, Self-esteem, Social Comparison, Age, and Life Satisfaction in a Community-based Sample

Facebook is amongst the most frequently used Social Networking Sites (SNSs) worldwide. Previous research reported SNS use such as Facebook use may have both positive and negative psychological impact on users, particularly with regards to users’ psychological wellbeing and life satisfaction. To fully acknowledge the extent to which SNS use may affect psychological wellbeing and life satisfaction, different forms of SNS use and experiences need to be taken into account by researchers. There is currently a lack of research investigating how Passive Facebook Use may impact on users’ well being. The present study sought to investigate how passive following on Facebook, fear of missing out, selfesteem, social comparison, and age may affect life satisfaction. A sample of 196 Facebook users (Mean age = 31.16, SD = 8.75) completed an online survey consisting of several psychometric tools. Overall, the results obtained suggest that life satisfaction may be differentially affected by a wide range of SNS-related experiences such as social comparison and fear of missing out. The implications of these findings for the use of SNSs are discussed.

Passive and Active Facebook Use Measure (PAUM): Validation and relationship to the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

The aims of this study were to design and validate a questionnaire to measure passive and active Facebook use, and to explore the associations of these factors with the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) of personality. Passive Facebook use describes the consumption but not the creation of content, while active Facebook use describes active engagement with the site. As Facebook has many features, users may interact with the site differently, thereby creating conflicting results when general use measures are assessed independently. To address this issue, we developed a 13-item questionnaire which reflects three levels of Facebook engagement: Active social, Active non-social, and Passive use. These three multi-item scales demonstrate sufficient internal reliability and discriminant validity. To further investigate individual differences in Facebook use, we used regressions to assess the associations between RST and the factors of the Passive Active Use Measure (PAUM). Reward Reactivity was positively associated with both Active social and Passive use. Impulsivity and Goal-Drive Persistence were positively associated with Active non-social use. FFFS was positively associated with Passive use, and Reward Interest was positively associated with all three PAUM factors. The findings of this study highlight how individual differences impact the way users engage with Facebook.

The reciprocal and indirect relationships between passive Facebook use, comparison on Facebook, and adolescents' body dissatisfaction

Facebook has been found to provide a fertile ground for social comparison. Emerging evidence indicates that social comparison may mediate the relationship between Facebook use and young people's body dissatisfaction. Yet, little work has been done on how these relationships evolve over time in adolescence and no study has examined the reciprocal relationships between passive Facebook use, social comparison, and adolescents' body dissatisfaction. To examine these reciprocal relationships, two-wave panel data (NTime1 = 1840) gathered among adolescents (ages 12–19) were analyzed. Cross-lagged structural equation models indicated that passive Facebook use at Time 1 predicted increases in boys' comparison on Facebook at Time 2. Comparison on Facebook at Time 2, in turn, was associated with more body dissatisfaction at Time 2. In addition, body dissatisfaction at Time 1 predicted increases in comparison on Facebook at Time 2. Comparison on Facebook at Time 2, in turn, was related to more passive Facebook use at Time 2, but less passive Facebook use over time. No gender differences were found for these opposite pathways. The discussion focuses on the explanation and understanding of these findings.

Passive Facebook use, Facebook addiction, and associations with escapism: An experimental vignette study

There is relatively little research considering motivations of passive Facebook use. However, research regarding motivations of general Facebook use indicates that people use Facebook to escape – and that escapism may motivate passive Facebook use. Research also suggests that using Facebook to escape is associated with Facebook addiction. Using an experimental vignette design, the present research investigated whether passive Facebook use is motivated by escapism and whether this escape motivation is associated with passive Facebook addiction. A within-participant experimental design using vignettes was used to explore the effect of positivity and, in addition, socialness on passive Facebook use. Addiction to passive Facebook use and perceived effect of passive Facebook use on mood were also assessed. Participants (n = 69) responded to 16 vignettes describing daily life events, as well as responding to a question about passive Facebook use on mood and completing the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale. Results suggested that individuals did not use Facebook to escape. There was no association between escapism in passive Facebook use and passive Facebook addiction. Social contact had a positive effect on passive Facebook use, and participants perceived passive Facebook use to have no effect on mood. Findings suggest that passive Facebook use is a less effective method of escape than general Facebook use, and reducing individuals’ likelihood of experiencing Facebook addiction symptoms.

The Facebook Experiment: Quitting Facebook Leads to Higher Levels of Well-Being.

Most people use Facebook on a daily basis; few are aware of the consequences. Based on a 1-week experiment with 1,095 participants in late 2015 in Denmark, this study provides causal evidence that Facebook use affects our well-being negatively. By comparing the treatment group (participants who took a break from Facebook) with the control group (participants who kept using Facebook), it was demonstrated that taking a break from Facebook has positive effects on the two dimensions of well-being: our life satisfaction increases and our emotions become more positive. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that these effects were significantly greater for heavy Facebook users, passive Facebook users, and users who tend to envy others on Facebook.

Gender and Facebook motives as predictors of specific types of Facebook use: A latent growth curve analysis in adolescence

Despite increasing evidence that specific types of Facebook use (i.e., active private, active public, and passive Facebook use) are differently related to adolescents' well-being, little is known how these types function over the course of adolescence and whether gender and Facebook motives may predict the initial level and changes in these types over time. To address these gaps, Flemish adolescents (ages 12–19) were questioned at three different time points, with six months in between (NTime1 = 1866). Latent growth curve models revealed that active private Facebook use increased over the course of adolescence, whereas public Facebook use decreased. Passive Facebook use, however, remained stable. In addition, gender and Facebook motives were related to initial levels of specific types of Facebook use, and predictive of dynamic change in specific types of Facebook use over time. The discussion focuses on the understanding and implications of these findings.