Passive Bystanders Research Articles

University Students’ Perceptions and Reactions to Cyberbullying on Social Media: The Case of Türkiye

ABSTRACT With cyberbullying emerging as a significant concern in contemporary society, understanding its prevalence, forms, and impacts is crucial for developing effective intervention strategies. This study aims to delve into the underlying factors contributing to cyberbullying incidents among university students. Employing quantitative methodologies, this research utilized a questionnaire comprising multiple-choice, scaled responses, and open-ended questions to explore students’ encounters, perceptions, and responses to cyberbullying. The study’s development was informed by theoretical frameworks and existing literature, with data analysis conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The sample comprised 392 participants, predominantly female (79.1 percent) and Turkish (98.7 percent). Most participants were 18–21 (46.9 percent) and 21–25 (41.3 percent). The majority (84.9 percent) were studying at a state university. The study reveals a widespread acknowledgment of cyberbullying as a severe problem among social media users, particularly prevalent on platforms like Instagram and TikTok. Offensive comments and hate speech were identified as dominant forms of cyberbullying, alongside newer tactics like emoji-based ridicule. Participant responses ranged from passive bystander behavior to active intervention, reflecting diverse coping mechanisms and strategies. The findings underscore the need for comprehensive approaches to combat cyberbullying, including educational programs, institutional support mechanisms, and interventions promoting digital citizenship. Furthermore, fostering peer support networks and enhancing awareness in university settings is crucial for effectively addressing cyberbullying. The study highlights various intervention areas and approaches to mitigate the impact of cyberbullying and promote a healthier digital environment. Future research should continue exploring the underlying motivations and barriers to seeking help, aiming to develop targeted strategies for prevention and intervention.

Heritage Diplomacy, Neo-Ottomanism, and a Local Quest for a New Place of Worship: The Politics of Mosque Building in Batumi, Georgia

ABSTRACT Over the past few decades, Turkey has funded numerous construction and building rehabilitation initiatives in foreign countries. Amidst such efforts, this article scrutinises the implications of Turkey’s heritage diplomacy tied to Ottoman architecture and how it has the potential to overshadow the desires of local populations. It points to one such case in Batumi, Georgia, where a replica of the 1868 Aziziye Mosque was proposed as a part of Georgia-Turkey cross-border heritage exchanges in the 2010s. Here, Turkey’s fostering of the project exacerbated local Muslim Georgian efforts to construct a mosque of their own in the city. The case demonstrates how heritage diplomacy can land poorly, shining light on a range of broader domestic impacts to urban planning and national identity, electoral politics and community social cohesion. Instead of seeing local Muslims as passive bystanders, the article demonstrates how they asserted their rights, building a temporary open-air mosque and redirecting the focus back towards their particular needs. The findings are based on a long-term study of the politics of urban development in Batumi using qualitative methods. They contribute to a growing body of scholarship in critical heritage studies, highlighting connections to public policy, diplomatic relations, and religious activism.

Beyond Cancer Cells: How the Tumor Microenvironment Drives Cancer Progression.

Liver cancer represents a substantial global health challenge, contributing significantly to worldwide morbidity and mortality. It has long been understood that tumors are not composed solely of cancerous cells, but also include a variety of normal cells within their structure. These tumor-associated normal cells encompass vascular endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various inflammatory cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, and lymphocytes. Additionally, tumor cells engage in complex interactions with stromal cells and elements of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Initially, the components of what is now known as the tumor microenvironment (TME) were thought to be passive bystanders in the processes of tumor proliferation and local invasion. However, recent research has significantly advanced our understanding of the TME's active role in tumor growth and metastasis. Tumor progression is now known to be driven by an intricate imbalance of positive and negative regulatory signals, primarily influenced by specific growth factors produced by both inflammatory and neoplastic cells. This review article explores the latest developments and future directions in understanding how the TME modulates liver cancer, with the aim of informing the design of novel therapies that target critical components of the TME.

Commonalities of platelet dysfunction in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and underlying comorbidities.

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is characterized by a lack of a specific targeted treatment and a complex, partially unexplored pathophysiology. Common comorbidities associated with HFpEF are hypertension, atrial fibrillation, obesity and diabetes. These comorbidities, combined with advanced age, play a crucial role in the initiation and development of the disease through the promotion of systemic inflammation and consequent changes in cardiac phenotype. In this context, we suggest platelets as important players due to their emerging role in vascular inflammation. This review provides an overview of the role of platelets in HFpEF and its associated comorbidities, including hypertension, atrial fibrillation, obesity and diabetes mellitus, as well as the impact of age and sex on platelet function. These major HFpEF-associated comorbidities present alterations in platelet behaviour and in features linked to platelet size, content and reactivity. The resulting dysfunctional platelets can contribute to further increase inflammation, oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction, suggesting an active role of these cells in the initiation and progression of HFpEF. Recent evidence shows that reduced platelet count and elevated mean platelet volume are associated with worsening heart failure in HFpEF patients. However, the specific mechanisms by which platelets contribute to HFpEF development and progression are still largely unexplored, with only a few studies investigating platelet function in HFpEF. We discuss the limited yet significant body of research investigating platelet function in HFpEF, emphasizing the need for more comprehensive studies. Additionally, we explore the potential mechanisms through which platelets may influence HFpEF, such as their interactions with the vascular endothelium and the secretion of bioactive molecules like cytokines, chemokines and RNA molecules. These interactions and secretions may play a role in modulating vascular inflammation and contributing to the pathophysiological landscape of HFpEF. The review underscores the necessity for future research to elucidate the precise contributions of platelets to HFpEF, aiming to potentially identify novel therapeutic targets and improve patient outcomes. The evidence presented herein supports the hypothesis that platelets are not merely passive bystanders but active participants in the pathophysiology of HFpEF and its comorbidities.

(Invited) Unveiling Fundamental Reaction Mechanisms at the Electrochemical Interface by Ab Initio Simulations

Direct experimental exploration of atomistic mechanisms governing electrocatalysis or wet corrosion at the solid-liquid interface is notoriously difficult. While fully parameter-free ab initio calculations have the potential to accurately elucidate such mechanisms, they encounter substantial conceptual challenges. Recent methodological breakthroughs, including the advent of efficient computational electrodes and the development of effective thermopotentiostats, overcame many of these limitations thus providing new research opportunities. This presentation outlines the fundamental concepts underlying these innovative methodologies and demonstrates their application in performing fully explicit calculations of structure and chemical reactions at electrified solid-water interfaces. The power of this approach in discovering new mechanisms will be demonstrated for fundamental electrochemical reactions such as metal dissolution and the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). The identified mechanisms challenge existing understandings and empfasize the active involvement of water molecules in electrochemical reactions, challenging the perception that they are passive bystanders.

Redefinition of Synovial Fibroblasts in Rheumatoid Arthritis.

The breakdown of immune tolerance and the rise in autoimmunity contribute to the onset of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), driven by significant changes in immune components. Recent advances in single-cell and spatial transcriptome profiling have revealed shifts in cell distribution and composition, expanding our understanding beyond molecular-level changes in inflammatory cytokines, autoantibodies, and autoantigens in RA. Surprisingly, synovial fibroblasts (SFs) play an active immunopathogenic role rather than remaining passive bystanders in RA, with notable alterations in their subpopulation distribution and composition. This study examines these changes in SF heterogeneity, assesses their impact on RA progression, and elucidates the immune characteristics and functions of SF subsets in the RA autoimmunity, encompassing both intrinsic and adaptive immunity. Additionally, this review discusses therapeutic strategies targeting immune SF subsets, highlighting the potential of future interventions in SF phenotypic reprogramming. Overall, this review redefines the role of SFs in RA and suggests targeting SF phenotypic reprogramming and its upstream molecules as a promising therapeutic approach to restore immune balance and modulate immune tolerance in RA.

Empathy's Crucial Role: Unraveling Impact on Students Bullying Behavior - A Scoping Review.

Bullying behavior among students is a serious problem in the educational context and has an impact on victims and perpetrators. Bullying has serious impacts, both emotionally and psychologically, especially for victims who are vulnerable to stress, depression, and even in extreme cases, can lead to suicidal tendencies. Empathy is a key factor in responding to bullying situations. So empathy is an important aspect in reducing bullying behavior. The aim of this research is to explore the role of empathy in bullying behavior in students. The scoping review method was used in this research. The keywords used are empathy, bullying, and students. Search for articles in three databases, namely CINAHL, PubMed, and Scopus. The inclusion criteria in the article search were samples are students (elementary schools students until high schools students) English language, discussion of empathy, publication of articles in the last 10 years (2014-2023), and original research. Grey literature excluded in this scoping review. Data analysis using thematic analysis. The authors found 13 articles that discussed the influence of empathy on bullying behavior in students. Findings from the articles analyzed highlight the complexity of the interactions between affective and cognitive empathy and students behavior in the context of bullying. Students with high levels of empathy tend to be more active in defending victims of bullying, while low levels of empathy tend to reinforce bullying behavior or passive bystander attitudes. Intervention programs that include social and emotional skills training, awareness campaigns, and learning approaches that promote tolerance and respect for diversity can have the potential to reduce the incidence of bullying in students. Increasing understanding and empathetic responses can be an effective strategy in addressing bullying problems in schools and communities.

Separation at birth due to safeguarding concerns: Using reproductive justice theory to re-think the role of midwives.

Separation at birth due to safeguarding concerns is a deeply distressing and impactful event, with numbers rising across the world, and has devastating outcomes for birth mothers and their children. It is one of the most challenging aspects of contemporary midwifery practice in high-income countries, although rarely discussed and reflected on during pre- and post-registration midwifery training. Ethnic and racial disparities are prevalent both in child protection and maternity services and can be explained through an intersectional lens, accounting for biases based on race, gender, class, and societal beliefs around motherhood. With this paper, we aim to contribute to the growing body of critical midwifery studies and re-think the role of midwives in this context. Building on principles of reproductive justice theory, Intersectionality, and Standpoint Midwifery, we argue that midwives play a unique role when supporting women who go through child protection processes and should pursue a shift from passive bystander to active upstander to improve care for this group of mothers.

Women in Politics and the Public Sphere: Munich 1918/1919

Women have never been passive bystanders to the history being made around them and they have always found ways to contribute to shaping their world. Munich in 1918/1919 provides a useful site to examine women's experiences and roles due to the long-standing involvement of women in the peace movement and welfare work, as well as the foundation of the Bavarian Soviet Republic after the First World War. However, Munich in the early years of the Weimar Republic is most commonly associated with Adolf Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch in 1923, an attempt by right-wing men to seize political power. Moreover, the 1918 revolution is also often told through the lens of male political figures. As a result, politics in the early twentieth century is easy to view as a male-dominated affair with women merely experiencing the effects of male political power. This era, particularly from the perspective of Munich, also becomes viewed through the lens of the rise of fascism, which obscures and distorts the alternative political visions many women held and worked towards. This article centres on women's experiences and roles in politics and the public sphere in revolutionary Munich to ask what opportunities the revolution and its immediate aftermath presented for women and how they were able to influence political decision-making despite huge barriers. Through an understanding of how their world was gendered, their role as political agents comes to the fore.

Individual and Contextual Correlates of Latent Bystander Profiles toward Racist Hate Speech: A Multilevel Person-centered Approach

Prior research into bystander responses to hate speech has utilized variable-centered analyses — such approaches risk simplifying the complex nature of bystander behaviors. Hence, the present study used a person-centered analysis to investigate latent hate speech bystander profiles. In addition, individual and classroom-level correlates associated with the various profiles were studied. The sample included 3225 students in grades 7–9 (51.7% self-identified as female; 37.2% with immigrant background) from 215 classrooms in Germany and Switzerland. The latent profile analysis revealed that four distinct profiles could be distinguished: Passive Bystanders (34.2%), Defenders (47.3%), Revengers (9.8%), and Contributors (8.6%). Multilevel logistic regression models showed common and distinct correlates. For example, students who believed that certain social groups are superior were more likely to be Revengers and Contributors than Passive Bystanders, students who felt more connected with teachers were more likely to be Defenders, and students who were more open to diversity were less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. Students were less likely Defenders and more likely Revengers and Contributors than Passive Bystanders in classrooms with high rates of hate speech perpetration. Further, in classrooms with high hate speech intervention, students were more likely to be Defenders and less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. In classrooms with stronger cohesion, students were more likely to be Defenders and less likely to be Contributors than Passive Bystanders. In conclusion, the findings add to our understanding of bystander profiles concerning racist hate speech and the relevance of individual and classroom-level factors in explaining various profiles of bystander behavior.

The Moral Maze of Cyberbullying: Navigating the Roles of Victims, Bystanders, and Perpetrators in the Cycle of Harm

ABSTRACT The available literature suggests that cyberbullying victims might be prone to become cyber-perpetrators themselves and that cyber-passive bystanders might be influenced by their cyberbullying experience and moral disengagement. The current study aimed to investigate the role of cyberbullying victimization and passive bystander behavior as predictors of cyberbullying aggression, while accounting for the mediating role of moral disengagement (specifically related to cyberbullying) and the moderating role of gender. We recruited 840 Romanian participants (78.6% females), aged 18 to 35 (M = 21.16, SD = 2.38). Results suggested that male participants reported higher cyberbullying aggression, passive bystander behavior, and moral disengagement. Both cyberbullying victimization and passive bystander behavior predicted cyberbullying aggression. Moral disengagement mediated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and cyberbullying aggression, as well as between passive bystander behavior and cyberbullying victimization. Furthermore, gender moderated the effect of passive bystander behavior on moral disengagement. Also, passive bystander behavior predicted moral disengagement only for male participants. The current results highlight that cyber-victims and bystanders with high moral disengagement might have higher chances of becoming cyber-aggressors.

Perilaku Membela Konstruktif: Wujud Empati Bystander dalam Tindakan Pembelaan yang Prososial

Bystander's responses can potentially strengthen or weaken the cyberbullying situation. However, the facts show that most bystanders choose to be passive rather than defend the victim. Nonetheless, passive bystander behavior does not necessarily mean approval of the perpetrator's actions. Some bystanders consider cyberbullying to be an unpleasant thing, so it can generate a sense of empathy for the victim. Unfortunately, a lack of self-efficacy and knowledge regarding how to deal with cyberbullying can inhibit bystanders from defending victims. Therefore, knowledge about constructive defending behaviors can help bystanders to defend victims in a good way. This article aims to provide knowledge about constructive defending behavior as an online prosocial behavior. This article explains that prosocial behavior theory is more relevant with constructive defending behavior than aggressive defending behavior. Then, constructive defending behavior can minimize cyberbullying because constructive defending behavior supports bystander emotion regulation, creates social norms related to positive online social interactions, and realizes social capital in the form of social ties. These social ties offer four useful resources, like information on how to deal with cyberbullying, social connectedness of bystanders with other social media users, potential bystander to be influent person who motivates other social media users to take constructive defense actions, and become a reinforcement of identity and a sense of worth to the victim. Hopefully, this article can provide an understanding that constructive defending behavior should be priority to develop by social media users.

The Role of Self-Control in Cyberbullying Bystander Behavior

The present study examined the association between general low self-control (LSC) and its three subcomponents: risk taking, self-centeredness, and impulsivity and various bystander behaviors of cyberbullying. The study utilized a bifactor modeling approach and included a sample of 501 adolescents aged 14–18 years old. Participants’ behaviors were measured using a self-reported questionnaire. General LSC was positively associated with the cyberbully-supporters’ and passive bystanders’ behaviors. Additionally, risk taking was positively associated with both the victim-defender’s and cyberbully-supporter’s behaviors, while self-centeredness was positively associated with both the passive bystander’s and the cyberbully-supporter’s behaviors. Furthermore, impulsivity was positively associated with the cyberbully-supporter’s behaviors. We conclude that general LSC plays an important role in understanding the cyberbully-supporter’s and passive bystander’s behaviors in cyberspace. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that LSC subcomponents were also associated with the bystanders’ behaviors above and beyond the associations between general LSC and these types of behaviors.

The Importance of Astrocytes in Neural Conduction: A Paradigm Shift in Neuroscience

Astrocytes, once relegated to the role of mere 'support cells' in the central nervous system, areemerging as key players in neural conduction and overall brain function. This article aims toelucidate the multifaceted roles of astrocytes, exploring why they have been historicallyovershadowed by neurons and how they contribute to the complexity of brain wave patterns.Through a series of computational simulations and a comprehensive review of existing literature,we demonstrate that astrocytes are not just passive bystanders but active participants in neuralsignaling. The article also discusses the implications of astrocyte function for cognitive abilitieslike learning, memory, and attention, as well as their role in pathological conditions like epilepsy.With 15 pertinent references, this article serves as a comprehensive review that challenges theneuron-centric view of brain function and calls for a reevaluation of the roles of astrocytes inneuroscience.

Caste and Black intergenerational racial trauma in the United States of America.

The United States (U.S.) racial caste system and White dominance began in slavery, culminating in Black intergenerational racial trauma. Until recently, Black intergenerational racial trauma largely was ignored by family scholars and therapists. Given that Black intergenerational racial trauma is inseparable from racial caste in the United States, it should be regarded as a wider, systemic problem, requiring intervention at the micro (e.g., family) and macro (e.g., society) levels. The U.S. dominant White society's investment in conserving racial caste furthers the ideological (e.g., political) and sentimental (e.g., democratic ideals) nullification of Black intergenerational racial trauma. Therefore, Black intergenerational racial trauma is often disenfranchised and can hamper Black people's experience of racial trauma as a collective. As passive bystanders, family scholars and therapists are co-conspirators in the long, enduring suffering of Black people. As advocates, family scholars and therapists are called upon to name the racial hierarchy in the United States as a caste system and to advance Black humanization. Specifically, Wilkerson's (Caste: The origins of our discontents. Random House, 2020) notion of the U.S. racial hierarchy as a functioning caste system frames the discussion of Black intergenerational racial trauma and includes the following topics: Black racial trauma, disenfranchised Black intergenerational racial trauma, collective Black intergenerational racial trauma, Black intergenerational racial trauma and the U.S. academy (traditionally White institutions of higher learning), history and its impact on Black intergenerational racial trauma, the Black body and racial trauma, intersectionality and the U.S. caste system, and collective hope and resilience.

SARS-CoV-2 Infection, Inflammation, Immunonutrition, and Pathogenesis of COVID-19.

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, has claimed millions of lives worldwide in the past two years. Fatalities among the elderly with underlying cardiovascular disease, lung disease, and diabetes have particularly been high. A bibliometrics analysis on author's keywords was carried out, and searched for possible links between various coronavirus studies over the past 50 years, and integrated them. We found keywords like immune system, immunity, nutrition, malnutrition, micronutrients, exercise, inflammation, and hyperinflammation were highly related to each other. Based on these findings, we hypothesized that the human immune system is a multilevel super complex system, which employs multiple strategies to contain microorganism infections and restore homeostasis. It was also found that the behavior of the immune system is not able to be described by a single immunological theory. However, one main strategy is "self-destroy and rebuild", which consists of a series of inflammatory responses: 1) active self-destruction of damaged/dysfunctional somatic cells; 2) removal of debris and cells; 3) rebuilding tissues. Thus, invading microorganisms' clearance could be only a passive bystander response to this destroy-rebuild process. Microbial infections could be self-limiting and promoted as an indispensable essential nutrition for the vast number of genes existing in the microorganisms. The transient nutrition surge resulting from the degradation of the self-destroyed cell debris coupled with the existing nutrition state in the patient may play an important role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Finally, a few possible coping strategies to mitigate COVID-19, including vaccination, are discussed.

Engagement of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells in the Remodeling of the Bone Marrow Microenvironment in Hematological Cancers.

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are a subset of heterogeneous, non-hematopoietic fibroblast-like cells which play important roles in tissue repair, inflammation, and immune modulation. MSCs residing in the bone marrow microenvironment (BMME) functionally interact with hematopoietic stem progenitor cells regulating hematopoiesis. However, MSCs have also emerged in recent years as key regulators of the tumor microenvironment. Indeed, they are now considered active players in the pathophysiology of hematologic malignancies rather than passive bystanders in the hematopoietic microenvironment. Once a malignant event occurs, the BMME acquires cellular, molecular, and epigenetic abnormalities affecting tumor growth and progression. In this context, MSC behavior is affected by signals coming from cancer cells. Furthermore, it has been shown that stromal cells themselves play a major role in several hematological malignancies' pathogenesis. This bidirectional crosstalk creates a functional tumor niche unit wherein tumor cells acquire a selective advantage over their normal counterparts and are protected from drug treatment. It is therefore of critical importance to unveil the underlying mechanisms which activate a protumor phenotype of MSCs for defining the unmasked vulnerabilities of hematological cancer cells which could be pharmacologically exploited to disrupt tumor/MSC coupling. The present review focuses on the current knowledge about MSC dysfunction mechanisms in the BMME of hematological cancers, sustaining tumor growth, immune escape, and cancer progression.

Can Job Demands and Job Resources Predict Bystander Behaviour in Workplace Bullying? A Longitudinal Study

AbstractBystanders can affect workplace bullying by engaging in active or passive behaviours. However, there is a knowledge gap regarding how perceived work environment factors relate to bystander behaviour. The study aim was to investigate how job demands, and job resources are associated with bystander behaviour in workplace bullying. An online questionnaire was distributed to a sample of health care workers at two time points. Longitudinal data were obtained from 1144 respondents. Cross-lagged panel models were used to investigate associations between job demands, job resources, and bystander behaviours over time. The results showed that social support was positively related to active behaviours, whereas influence at work was negatively related to both active and passive behaviours. Perceived illegitimate tasks were negatively related to active and positively related to passive behaviours, whereas emotional demands had an unanticipated opposite pattern of relationships. The findings provide new information about how factors in the organisational and social work environment are associated with active and passive bystander behaviours in workplace bullying. Specifically, the results expand current understanding of workplace bullying by relating bystander behaviour to the organisational context.

Toxic sensation seeking? Psychological distress, cyberbullying, and the moderating effect of online disinhibition among adults.

Cyberbullying among adults is barely studied, though its consequences may be as severe as in children and adolescents. The present study investigated the links between psychological distress, cyber-perpetration, and passive cyber-bystander behavior. We also explored the moderating role of toxic disinhibition in this regard. Our sample comprised 385 adults aged 19-66 (M = 28.35, SD = 11.22, 76.62% females). The results suggested that psychological distress was significantly associated with cyberbullying perpetration and passive bystander behavior. Also, higher psychological distress significantly predicted toxic disinhibition. Further moderation analyses suggested that at high and medium levels of toxic disinhibition, psychological distress significantly predicted cyberbullying perpetration but not passive cyber-bystander behavior. Finally, we discuss our results regarding their theoretical and practical implication for cyberbullying prevention among adults.

Profiling neurotransmitter-evoked glial responses by RNA-sequencing analysis.

Fundamental properties of neurons and glia are distinctively different. Neurons are excitable cells that transmit information, whereas glia have long been considered as passive bystanders. Recently, the concept of tripartite synapse is proposed that glia are structurally and functionally incorporated into the synapse, the basic unit of information processing in the brains. It has then become intriguing how glia actively communicate with the presynaptic and postsynaptic compartments to influence the signal transmission. Here we present a thorough analysis at the transcriptional level on how glia respond to different types of neurotransmitters. Adult fly glia were purified from brains incubated with different types of neurotransmitters ex vivo. Subsequent RNA-sequencing analyses reveal distinct and overlapping patterns for these transcriptomes. Whereas Acetylcholine (ACh) and Glutamate (Glu) more vigorously activate glial gene expression, GABA retains its inhibitory effect. All neurotransmitters fail to trigger a significant change in the expression of their synthesis enzymes, yet Glu triggers increased expression of neurotransmitter receptors including its own and nAChRs. Expressions of transporters for GABA and Glutamate are under diverse controls from DA, GABA, and Glu, suggesting that the evoked intracellular pathways by these neurotransmitters are interconnected. Furthermore, changes in the expression of genes involved in calcium signaling also functionally predict the change in the glial activity. Finally, neurotransmitters also trigger a general metabolic suppression in glia except the DA, which upregulates a number of genes involved in transporting nutrients and amino acids. Our findings fundamentally dissect the transcriptional change in glia facing neuronal challenges; these results provide insights on how glia and neurons crosstalk in a synaptic context and underlie the mechanism of brain function and behavior.