Particle Size Distribution Of Flour Research Articles

Effect of High-Protein and High-Fiber Breaders on Oil Absorption and Quality Attributes in Chicken Nuggets.

Consumption of fried foods is associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular and other diseases; therefore, consumers are looking to reduce fat intake. We evaluated the effect of high-protein breaders and fiber on oil absorption and quality attributes in chicken nuggets, using flour blends (wheat, chickpea, coconut, oil-quinoa-chia), soy protein concentrate, and brewers' spent grain. We evaluated the chemical composition, water and oil retention capacity (ORC), viscosity profile, and flour particle size distribution, along with the developed breaders (Formulation 1 and 2) and a commercial breader (CB), in addition to texture, color, fat, and moisture contents of the fried chicken nuggets prepared with the developed breaders and the CB. The total dietary fiber content (TDF) of the nuggets breaded with only Formulation-1 and CB was determined. Nuggets breaded with Formulation-1 showed lower (p ≤ 0.05) ORC, better moisture retention (67.6%), and more TDF (4.5% vs. 2.3%, p ≤ 0.05) compared to CB-breaded nuggets. Nuggets with Formulation-1 showed the expected texture and color characteristics for fried products. Formulation-1 has the potential to be used as a breader due to its moisture, reduced ORC, and the texture and color it imparts to the fried nuggets, providing higher amounts of nutrients and possible health benefits.

The endosperm microstructure, physical, thermal properties and specific milling energy of spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) grain and flour

Previous research has shown that the endosperm microstructure and physical properties of grain have significance in grain processing and in the development of processing machines. The aim of our study was to analyze the endosperm microstructure, physical, thermal properties, and specific milling energy of organic spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) grain and flour. Image analysis combined with fractal analysis was used to describe the microstructural differences of the endosperm of spelt grain. The endosperm morphology of spelt kernels was monofractal, isotropic, and complex. A higher proportion of Type-A starch granules resulted in an increased proportion of voids and interphase boundaries in the endosperm. Changes in the fractal dimension were correlated with kernel hardness, specific milling energy, the particle size distribution of flour, and the starch damage rate. Spelt cultivars varied in size and shape of the kernels. Kernel hardness was a property that differentiated specific milling energy, particle size distribution of flour, and starch damage rate. Fractal analysis may be considered as a useful tool for evaluating milling processes in the future.

Enhancing the Techno-Functionality of Pea Flour by Air Injection-Assisted Extrusion at Different Temperatures and Flour Particle Sizes

Industrial applications of pulses in various food products depend on pulse flour techno-functionality. To manipulate the techno-functional properties of yellow pea flour, the effects of flour particle size (small vs. large), extrusion temperature profile (120, 140 and 160 °C at the die) and air injection pressure (0, 150 and 300 kPa) during extrusion cooking were investigated. Extrusion cooking caused the denaturation of proteins and gelatinization of starch in the flour, which induced changes in the techno-functionality of the extruded flour (i.e., increased water solubility, water binding capacity and cold viscosity and decreased emulsion capacity, emulsion stability, and trough and final viscosities). In general, the large particle size flour required less energy input to be extruded and had higher emulsion stability and trough and final viscosities compared to the small particle size flour. Overall, among all of the treatments studied, extrudates produced with air injection at 140 and 160 °C had higher emulsion capacity and emulsion stability, making them relatively better suited food ingredients for emulsified foods (e.g., sausages). The results indicated air injection's potential as a novel extrusion technique combined with modification of flour particle size distribution and extrusion processing conditions to effectively manipulate product techno-functionality and broaden the applications of pulse flours in the food industry.

The influence of dough kneading time and flour particle size distribution on white bread structure, glycemic response and aspects of appetite.

White bread is widely consumed in many countries despite being a high-glycemic index (GI) food. It has been shown that the "food matrix effect" may help with diabetes and obesity management through lowering GI and appetite. This study aimed at investigating the effects of dough kneading time and flour particle size on white bread structure, glycemic response, and aspects of appetite. A two-phase randomized cross-over design was used in 10 healthy subjects over the course of 2h. In phase 1, Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) attributes, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image, glycemic response, and appetite aspects of white bread made with a 15-mindough kneading time (K15) were compared with white bread made with a 10-mindough kneading time (K10). In phase 2, TPA, SEM image, glycemic response, and satiety score of white bread made with coarse flour (CF) were compared to white bread made with fine flour (FF). With increasing hardness (force required to compress a food between the molars to a given deformation), total blood glucose IAUC in K15 (IAUC=119±12; GI=66) was significantly (p<0.05) lower than in K10 (IAUC=154±10; GI=81). No marked difference was observed between K15 and K10 on aspects of appetite except for hunger. There was no significant (p>0.05) difference in glycemic response between CF (IAUC=126±18; GI=64) and FF (IAUC=147±12; GI=81). Similarly, no discernible difference in satiety between CF and FF. Changes in processing conditions can improve blood glucose response relalated to white bread consumption.

Inventory calculation for commercial production of cereal grain flour using particle size distribution model.

In India cerealgrain sector reflects increasing demand with increasingly affluent population.Wheat, jowar (sorghum), and corn (maize) are commonly consumed cereal grains in Indian subcontinent and hence produced abundantly. These cereals are consumed in the form of flour (Atta) obtained fromeither in domestic or commercial mills, which have increasingglobal market demand. The particle size distribution of cerealgrain flour decides the quality of final product. Thus study of particle size distribution of flour obtainedduring milling is one of the essential parameter for the large scale production. In the present research work grinding of wheat, jowar (sorghum) and corn(maize) using flour mills (Buhrstone mill) and their particle size distribution using suitable mathematical models (Gaudin-Schuhmann and Rosin-Rammler-Bennett) have been studied. Further the best fit model equation is utilized to determine the inventory required for the large scale production of cereal flour. Upon applying different models it was found that GS model fits well to cereal grain flour making which is evident from high coefficient of determination of 0.9221. The model can be used to compute inventory requirement for production of flour of desired size of required cereal grain. For example to produce 1 ton of 1362µm size of wheat flour one needs 1.4 ton of raw material.

Effect of Wholegrain Flour Particle Size in Bread on Glycaemic and Insulinaemic Response among People with Risk Factors for Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomised Crossover Trial

Wholegrain flour produced by roller-milling is predominantly comprised of fine particles, while stoneground flour tends to have a comparatively smaller proportion of fine particles. Differences in flour particle size distribution can affect postprandial glycaemia in people with type 2 diabetes and postprandial insulinaemia in people with and without type 2 diabetes. No prior studies have investigated the effect of wholegrain flour particle size distribution on glycaemic or insulinaemic response among people with impaired glucose tolerance or risk factors for type 2 diabetes. In a randomised crossover study, we tested the 180-min acute glycaemic and insulinaemic responses to three wholegrain breads differing in flour particle size and milling method: (1) fine roller-milled flour, (2) fine stoneground flour, and (3) coarse stoneground flour. Participants (n = 23) were males and females with risk factors for type 2 diabetes (age 55–75 y, BMI >28 kg/m2, completing less than 150 min moderate to vigorous intensity activity per week). Each test meal provided 50 g available carbohydrate, and test foods were matched for energy and macronutrients. There was no significant difference in blood glucose iAUC (incremental area under the curve) between the coarse stoneground flour bread and the fine stoneground flour bread (mean difference −20.8 (95% CI: −51.5, 10.0) mmol·min/L) and between the coarse stoneground flour bread and the fine roller-milled flour bread (mean difference −23.3 (95% CI: −57.6, 11.0) mmol·min/L). The mean difference in insulin iAUC for fine stoneground flour bread compared with the fine roller-milled flour bread was −6.9% (95% CI: −20.5%, 9.2%) and compared with the coarse stoneground flour bread was 9.9% (95% CI: −2.6%, 23.9%). There was no evidence of an effect of flour particle size on postprandial glycaemia and insulinaemia among older people with risk factors for type 2 diabetes, most of whom were normoglycaemic.

Relationships between grain physicochemical characteristics and flour particle size distribution for Taiwan rice cultivars

Fourteen cultivars of rice, 5 indica, 6 japonica and 3 waxy types were used to investigate the relationship between grain physicochemical characteristics and particle size distributions of rice flour. The data showed that particle size index (PSI) negatively correlated with the resistance time (RT) and milling temperature of Stenvert hardness test, damaged starch of rice flour, and percentage retained on 60 mesh (> 60 mesh %) (p < 0.05), but positively correlated with percentage that passed through 60 mesh and retained on 100 mesh (60-100 mesh %) (p < 0.05). From principal component analysis (PCA), the first and the second principal components, describing 56.14 and 21.44% of the variance of rice samples, respectively. The first principal component highly correlated with variables including RT, > 60 mesh %, milling temperature of Stenvert hardness test and damaged starch of rice flour, but negatively correlated with hardness index of Brabender micro-hardness test (BMHT), 60-100 mesh % and PSI. The second principal component positively correlated with ash and fat contents, but negatively correlated with shape and thousand-kernel weight (TKW) of rice grains. The effect of protein content was intermediate between the first and second principal component. Based on the results of PCA, the rice grain physical characteristics (i.e., RT and BMHT) are major factors, followed by chemical compositions, affecting the rice flour particle size distributions.

Influence of Flour Particle Size Distribution on the Quality of Maize Gluten-Free Cookies.

The objective of the present study was to analyse the influence of particle size distribution of maize flour in the formulation of gluten-free cookies. Different cookie formulations were made with three distinct maize flour fractions obtained by sieving (less than 80 µm; between 80 and 180 µm; greater than 180 µm). Cookies dimension, texture and colour were evaluated. Flour hydration properties and cookie dough rheology were also measured. Overall, an increase in maize flour particle size decreases the values of water holding capacity (WHC), swelling volume and G’ (elastic modulus) for the doughs. An increase in average particle size also increases diameter and spread factor of the cookies but decreases their hardness. A higher percentage of thick particles is more effective to reduce cookie hardness, but a certain percentage of thinner particles is necessary to give cohesion to the dough and to allow formation of the cookies without breaking. Cookies with a larger diameter also presented a darker colour after baking.

Changes in Particle Size Distribution of Bran and Flour Obtained from Vacuum Impregnated and Infra-red Heated Wheat Grain

This study aims to provide comprehensive information on the process of vacuum impregnation of wheat grains. Vacuum impregnation, saturating materials with additional liquid components, is a well-known process originally developed to ensure leak tightness or reduce the porosity of various materials. We describe its potential uses in the food processing industry relating to the impregnation of grains and leguminous plant seeds. The objective of the study was to determine the influence of impregnation and infrared heating of wheat grains on flour efficiency, moisture content and particle size distribution in the resulting flour and bran. The experimental material comprised three varieties of wheat. The results showed that the method of preparing the wheat grains for milling combined with impregnation had a significant impact on the particle size distribution of bran but not on the particle size distribution of flour. A more complete view of the process characteristics requires further investigation of factors related to the structural and textural properties of the impregnated material, factors which are highly varied in the case of food materials and food products.

Effects of High-Pressure Treatment on Functional, Rheological, Thermal and Structural Properties of Thai Jasmine Rice Flour Dispersion

Effect of high-pressure (300–600 MPa) and flour to water (F/W) ratio (1:1-1:4) on functional, rheological, thermal and structural properties of Thai Jasmine rice flour were investigated. Water holding capacity and water solubility index of high-pressure-treated rice samples increased linearly with pressure intensity. Pressure treatment significantly influenced the particle size distribution of flour. Thermal transitions and the mechanical property of pressure-treated samples were measured by DSC and rheometry, respectively. Starch gelatinization of rice flour is affected by both applied pressure and F/W ratio. The mechanical rigidity G′ of rice flour decreased with increasing F/W ratio and increased with the pressure level. The peak viscosity, hot paste viscosity and final viscosity decreased significantly with increasing pressure intensity. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy showed changes in the secondary structure of rice proteins and the sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) showed changes in the protein subunits that occurred after the pressure treatment. Practical Applications High pressure is a novel processing technology that transforms sol to gel and produces a desirable gel which is relatively softer than the thermal gel. Rice flour is currently studied extensively for development of food products for celiacs and an increasing demand from Asian consumers' for preparation of ethnic foods. Therefore, an application of pressure as a processing method to improve the quality of rice starch products would be possible.

Maize flour parameters that are related to the consumer perceived quality of ‘broa’ specialty bread

A wide range of quality parameters have been used to describe maize flours for food use, but there is no general agreement about the most suitable parameters for breadmaking. The objective of this study was to identify the maize flour parameters related to the consumer perceived quality of Portuguese broa bread (more than 50% maize flour). The influence of eleven maize landraces was assessed and compared with commercial flour using baking tests. The broa were evaluated by instrumental (colour, firmness) and sensory hedonic analysis with a consumer panel of 52 assessors. The broa sensory analysis revealed similar assessments among landraces and the lowest scores for commercial flour. The flour particle size distribution is the major influence, with commercial flour showing the highest mean diameter and a large particle distribution range. Broa consumer panel linkage associations and specific sensory descriptors have been identified; age as an influence on colour, cohesiveness, and source region as an influence on appearance and texture.

Specific median flour particle size distribution of Japanese common wheats; comparison with Chinese common wheats

Flour particle size distribution is a major factor affecting the milling behavior in common wheats (Triticum aestivum L.). Also, a previous study has revealed a relationship between flour yield and median flour particle size of Japanese wheats. However, the genetic base of Japanese common wheat is narrow and will need to be broadened. Therefore, in order to help develop the genetic resource for higher flour yields in Japanese wheat breeding, the flour yield of one hundred and seventy Chinese common wheats were investigated in relation to the median flour particle size and the flour particle size distribution patterns as determined by laser diffraction. The results showed significant differences in the median flour particle size and distribution patterns of Chinese wheats and the Japanese wheats that had been analyzed in a previous study. In particular, 45% of Chinese wheats were categorized as hard wheats, but only 4% as soft wheats. In contrast, the previously analyzed Japanese wheat proportions were 20% and 25%, respectively. The results show that analysis of median flour particle size distribution by laser diffraction is a simple but effective tool for measuring and selecting the good flour milling quality in Chinese wheat genetic resources. In addition, the major differences between the Japanese and Chinese wheats highlighted in this study occurred despite the fact that it is well known that Chinese common wheats contributed to modern Japanese wheat varieties. The differences may be explained by either the founder effect or by a selective bottleneck in Japanese wheat genetic resources.

Relationships of damaged starch granules and particle size distribution with pasting and thermal profiles of milled MR263 rice flour

This research was conducted to investigate the effects of different grinding techniques (dry, semi-wet and wet) of milled rice grains on the damaged starch and particle size distribution of flour produced from a new variety, MR263, specifically related to the pasting and thermal profiles. The results indicated that grinding techniques significantly (p<0.05) affected starch damage content and particle size distribution of rice flour. Wet grinding process yields flour with lowest percentage of starch damage (7.37%) and finest average particle size (8.52μm). Pasting and gelatinization temperature was found in the range of 84.45–89.63°C and 59.86–75.31°C, respectively. Dry ground flour attained the lowest pasting and gelatinization temperature as shown by the thermal and pasting profiles. Correlation analysis revealed that percentage of damaged starch granules had a significant, negative relationship with pasting temperature while average particle size distribution had a significant, strong negative relationship with gelatinization temperature.

The effects of Australian sweet lupin (ASL) variety on physical properties of flours and breads

Physical characteristics of Australian sweet lupin (ASL) flours and breads made using ASL (20 g/100 g)-refined wheat (80 g/100 g) composite flours of ASL varieties Belara, Coromup, Gungurru, Jenabillup, Mandelup and Tanjil were evaluated and compared to wheat-only flour and bread. There was a significant (p < 0.05) effect of ASL variety on flour particle size distribution and surface area. Moisture loss, bread specific volume, crumb characteristics and texture properties of ASL-wheat breads were also significantly (p < 0.05) affected by ASL variety. Of the ASL varieties, Mandelup-wheat bread had the lowest (p < 0.05) moisture loss, bread volume, and height; most dense pore appearance and higher number of smaller cells; hardest, chewiest and least springy instrumental texture. Tanjil-wheat bread had the highest bread volume and was comparable with other ASL-wheat breads in terms of moisture loss, crumb cell and texture characteristics. Results suggest that ASL varieties Belara, Coromup, Gungurru, Jenabillup and Tanjil can be incorporated into wheat flour for bread manufacturing with desirable bread volume, crumb cell and texture attributes.

Effect of median flour particle size on flour yield in Japanese common wheats

Flour particle size distribution is a major factor affecting the milling behaviour in common wheats (Triticum aestivum L.). This study evaluated a new method to evaluate the milling behaviour of Japanese wheat varieties, and determine the relationship between flour yield and median flour particle size. To investigate the higher flour yielding varieties in Japanese wheats, the flour yield of one hundred sixty-five Japanese common wheat varieties were investigated in relation to median and mean flour particle size, and also, the flour particle size distribution patterns as determined by laser diffraction. The results showed that hard and soft wheat varieties differed in median flour particle size and particle distribution patterns. Eighty percent of the Japanese wheat varieties had soft or medium-soft particle size distribution patterns. Also, flour yield was most strongly associated with the median flour particle size in the flour samples. These results indicate the potential to develop a flour yield evaluation method in Japanese udon-noodle wheat varieties using laser diffraction methods, and that median flour particle size analysis could be a useful indicator in flour quality for udon-noodle wheat breeding and evaluation.

Evaluation of the in vitro glycemic index of a fiber-rich extruded breakfast cereal produced with organic passion fruit fiber and corn flour

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of process parameters and Passion Fruit Fiber (PFF) addition on the Glycemic Index (GI) of an extruded breakfast cereal. A 23 Central Composite Rotational Design (CCRD) was used, with the following independent variables: raw material moisture content (18-28%), 2nd and 3rd barrel zone temperatures (120-160 oC), and PFF (0-30%). Raw materials (organic corn flour and organic PFF) were characterized as to their proximate composition, particle size, and in vitro GI. The extrudates were characterized as to their in vitro GI. The Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were used to analyze the results. Corn flour and PFF presented 8.55 and 7.63% protein, 2.61 and 0.60% fat, 0.52 and 6.17% ash, 78.77 and 78.86% carbohydrates (3 and 64% total dietary fiber), respectively. The corn flour particle size distribution was homogeneous, while PFF presented a heterogeneous particle size distribution. Corn flour and PFF presented values of GI of 48 and 45, respectively. When using RSM, no effect of the variables was observed in the GI of the extrudates (average value of 48.41), but PCA showed that the GI tended to be lower when processing at lower temperatures ( 158 oC). When compared to white bread, the extrudates showed a reduction of the GI of up to 50%, and could be considered an interesting alternative in weight and glycemia control diets.

Effect of calcium content in the corn flour on RVA profiles

Corn flour was produced using the traditional nixtamalization process and different steeping times of 0, 1, 5, 6, 10, 13, and 24 h. The flour particle size distribution was then evaluated in terms of the particles retained by using a 40 US mesh screen. The lime content, the Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) profiles, maximum peak viscosity, breakdown and final viscosity ( V) were measured as a function of the steeping time. It was found that the initial rate of increase in viscosity (d V/d t), maximum peak viscosity, breakdown and final viscosity of fractions depended on the amount of calcium incorporated in the corn kernels during the steeping time ( T s ) of the nixtamalization process. The particles retained using a 40 mesh that were steeped for 0–5 h, do not have the characteristic points of an RVA profile, i.e., maximum peak viscosity and breakdown. However, the particles retained using a 40 mesh and steeped for 6–24 h developed peak viscosity, breakdown and final viscosity. The corn flours that are recommended for making tortillas are precisely the flours whose particle size distributions develop these three characteristic points in the RVA profile. Differences in RVA measurements of the size fractions can be explained on the basis of the calcium content of the course fractions of corn flours. It was concluded that RVA characteristics may be changed by the calcium content in the starch polymer structures created during the nixtamalization process. Consequently, the increased calcium content in starch particles should be reflected in RVA measurements as an increase in the peak viscosity, in the gelatinization rate and in the development of a noticeable breakdown.

Studies on the traditional methods of production of maize tuwo (a Nigerian non-fermented maize dumpling).

This study was carried out in order to identify the critical areas that could have potential influence on the quality characteristics of maize tuwo (a Nigerian nonfermented maize dumpling) and which might also serve as a basis for any technological improvement effort with respect to the product quality. Commercial producers of maize tuwo were interviewed and their production processes evaluated while samples (maize flour and tuwo) collected from them were respectively analyzed. The investigation revealed that white maize grains of different varieties were commonly being used for tuwo preparation and this has a potential of influencing product quality. The quality factors being used for assessing maize tuwo by the consumers were colour, texture (mouldability and swallowability) and taste.Other critical areas with potential influence on product quality were variation in flour production methods which are grit soaking and grit non-soaking methods and variation in particle size distribution of flour being used in tuwo preparation. Grit nonsoaking method was generally being adopted by most maize tuwo producers while the flour from grit soaking method was generally believed to give a better tuwo quality. Variation in the colour indices of maize flour samples was another critical area thatcould influence product quality. The lightness index (L*-value) of the flour ranged between 88.2 and 88.9 while the chroma (C-value) ranged between 13.3 and 15. There was also a variation in the softness index (textural quality) of maize tuwo. The softness index ranged between 17.8mm and 18.7mm immediately after cooling but ranged between 16.2mm and 17.5mm about nine hours after production. Another critical area that could influence tuwo quality was variation in flour/water ratiosinvolved in product preparation. The ratio ranged between 1:3.3 and 1:3.8. The conclusion made from the ingredient standardization effort was that the overall flour/water ratio for maize tuwo preparation should be 1:3.5. The sequential mixing of flour and water during maize tuwo preparation should also be as follows: initial slurry preparation (20 and 25% of the desired total flour quantity and water volume, respectively), water used in initial boiling (60% of total volume), flour added to thepap-like consistency (80% of total) and water added to the gel- like consistency (15% of total volume).

Effects of Rice Flour Properties on Specific Loaf Volume of One-loaf Bread Made from Rice Flour with Wheat Vital Gluten

Using various rice flours prepared by different milling methods, the relationship between rice flour properties and specific loaf volumes of one-loaf bread made from rice flour with wheat vital gluten were studied. Damaged starch content of rice flour varied from 1.0% to 22.1%. A significant negative correlation was verified between damaged starch content and specific loaf volume of one-loaf bread. Rice flour with low damaged starch content mainly consisted of compound starch granules, aggregated polyhedral single starch granules and smooth surface cells surrounded by the cell wall. The structures of starch granules and cells were maintained in rice flour with low damaged starch content. Rice flour with high damaged starch content consisted of only fine irregular particles without the apparent rice starch structure, or contained fractured large and small cells with rough surface. Although there was not significant correlation between specific loaf volume and median particle size, rice flours which were successful at making bread with high specific loaf volume commonly showed a peak centered around 60 µm with a smaller amount of larger size particles in the particle distribution profile. Thus, the flour particle size distribution appears to affect the specific loaf volume of one-loaf bread. Both the damaged starch content and the profile of particle size distribution were important for high specific loaf volume of one-loaf bread. Less damage to starch and cell structures while lowering the particle size during milling process is critical in obtaining better flour for rice one-loaf bread making.

Grain characterization and milling behaviour of near-isogenic lines differing by hardness

Wheat grain hardness is a major factor affecting the milling behaviour and end-product quality although its exact structural and biochemical basis is still not understood. This study describes the development of new near-isogenic lines selected on hardness. Hard and soft sister lines were characterised by near infrared reflectance (NIR) and particle size index (PSI) hardness index, grain protein content, thousand kernel weight and vitreousness. The milling behaviour of these wheat lines was evaluated on an instrumented micromill which also measures the grinding energy and flour particle size distribution was investigated by laser diffraction. Endosperm mechanical properties were measured using compression tests. Results pointed out the respective effect of hardness and vitreousness on those characteristics. Hardness was shown to influence both the mode of fracture and the mechanical properties of the whole grain and endosperm. Thus, this parameter also acts on milling behaviour. On the other hand, vitreousness was found to mainly play a role on the energy required to break the grain. This study allows us to distinguish between consequences of hardness and vitreousness. Hardness is suggested to influence the adhesion forces between starch granules and protein matrix whereas vitreousness would rather be related to the endosperm microstructure.