Particle Mass Research Articles

How to define temperature in active systems?

We are used to measuring temperature with a thermometer, and we know from everyday life that different types of thermometers measure the same temperature. This experience can be based on equilibrium thermodynamics, which explains the equivalence of different possibilities to define temperature. In contrast, for systems out of equilibrium such as active matter, measurements performed with different thermometers can generally lead to different temperature values. In the present work, we systematically compare different possibilities to define temperature for active systems. Based on simulations and theory for inertial active Brownian particles, we find that different temperatures generally lead to different temperature values, as expected. Remarkably, however, we find that different temperatures not only lead to the same values near equilibrium (low Péclet number or high particle mass) but also even far from equilibrium, several different temperatures approximately coincide. In particular, we find that the kinetic temperature, the configurational temperature, and temperatures based on higher moments of the velocity distribution constitute a class of temperatures that all assume very similar values over a wide parameter range. Notably, the effective temperature and temperatures exploiting the virial theorem, the Stokes-Einstein relation, or a harmonic confinement form a second class of temperatures whose values approximately coincide with each other but which strongly differ from those of the first class. Finally, we identify advantages and disadvantages of the different possibilities to define temperature and discuss their relevance for measuring the temperature of active systems.

Advances in Single Particle Mass Analysis.

Single particle mass analysis methods allow the measurement and characterization of individual nanoparticles, viral particles, as well as biomolecules like protein aggregates and complexes. Several key benefits are associated with the ability to analyze individual particles rather than bulk samples, such as high sensitivity and low detection limits, and virtually unlimited dynamic range, as this figure of merit strictly depends on analysis time. However, data processing and interpretation of single particle data can be complex, often requiring advanced algorithms and machine learning approaches. In addition, particle ionization, transfer, and detection efficiency can be limiting factors for certain types of analytes. Ongoing developments in the field aim to address these challenges and expand the capabilities of single particle mass analysis techniques. Charge detection mass spectrometry is a single particle version of mass spectrometry in which the charge (z) is determine independently from m/z. Nano-electromechanical resonator mass analysis relies on changes in a nanoscale device's resonance frequency upon deposition of a particle to directly derive its inertial mass. Mass photometry uses interferometric video-microscopy to derive particle mass from the intensity of the scattered light. A common feature of these approaches is the acquisition of single particle data, which can be filtered and concatenated in the form of a particle mass distribution. In the present article, dedicated to our honored colleague Richard Cole, we cover the latest technological advances and applications of these single particle mass analysis approaches.

A Tutorial on the Strong Gravity Effects in Black Hole X-Ray Spectra

This is a tutorial on the strong gravity effects (motion of massive and massless particles in a curved spacetime, evaluation of redshift factors, estimate of physical quantities in different reference frames, etc.) necessary to calculate the electromagnetic spectra of geometrically thin and optically thick accretion disks around black holes. The presentation is intentionally pedagogical, and most calculations are reported step by step. In the disk–corona model, the spectrum of a source has three components: a thermal component from the disk, a Comptonized component from the corona, and a reflection component from the disk. This tutorial reviews only the strong gravity effects, which can be decoupled from the physical processes involving the interaction between matter and radiation. The formulas presented here are valid for stationary, axisymmetric, asymptotically flat, circular spacetimes, so they can be potentially used for a large class of black hole solutions.

Test particles in Kaluza-Klein models

Abstract Geodesics in general relativity describe the behaviour of test particles in a gravitational field. In 5D Kaluza-Klein, geodesics reproduce the Lorentz force motion of particles in an electromagnetic field. This paper studies geodesic motion on a higher-dimensional M4 × K with background metrics encoding general 4D gauge fields and Higgs-like scalars. It shows that the classical mass and charge of a test particle become variable quantities when the geodesic traverses regions of spacetime with massive gauge fields, such as the weak force field, or with non-constant Higgs scalars. This agrees with the physical fact that interactions mediated by massive bosons can change the mass and charge of particles. The variation rates of mass and charge along a geodesic are given by natural geometric formulae. In regions where mass is preserved, there are additional constants of motion, one for every abelian or simple summand in the Killing algebra of K. The last part of the paper discusses traditional difficulties of Kaluza-Klein models, such as the low q/m ratios in the 5D model. It suggests possible ways to circumvent them. It also remarks the naturalness of a model where elementary particles always travel at the speed of light in higher dimensions.

Topological string as massive spinning particle in three dimensions

A model is proposed for a classical bosonic string in d=3 Minkowski space with an action functional that includes Gauss and mean world-sheet curvature. The Lagrangian is invariant under 3d Poincaré transformations modulo total divergence. In addition to the diffeomorphism, the action enjoys the extra gauge symmetry with the second derivatives of the scalar gauge parameter. This symmetry gauges out all the local degrees of freedom (d.o.f.), while some global d.o.f. survive. The Hamiltonian constrained analysis confirms that the model does not have any local d.o.f.. The world sheet of the string turns out to be a cylinder with timelike axis. The global d.o.f. of this string describe one single irreducible massive 3d particle with spin. The particle momentum is a conserved vector directed along the cylinder axis while the momentum square is a fixed constant determined by the parameters in the action. The total angular momentum is a conserved vector that defines the position of the axis of the cylinder whose specific value is defined by initial data, while the spin, being the product of momentum and angular momentum is fixed by the parameters in the string Lagrangian. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Nucleon consumption and mass-energy conversion induced by dark matter

We propose the nucleon consumption induced by dark matter (DM) as a new scenario to overcome the energy threshold of direct detection. It can be realized with proton (χ+p→χ+ℓ+) or neutron (χ+n→χ+ν) target. Both effective operators and concrete models are provided to illustrate the idea. Since the initial DM and nucleon velocity is only 10−3 and 1/4 of the speed of light, respectively, the cross section and hence event rate are determined by the involved particle masses and not affected by the nucleon Fermi motion. Of the two realizations, the proton consumption has richer phenomena with both charged lepton and the daughter nuclei deexcitation to allow double or even triple coincidence to significantly suppress the background. We also illustrate the projected sensitivities at DM and neutrino experiments such as PandaX-4T, DUNE, JUNO, and Hyper-K. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

The motion mechanism of a boulder transported by landslide

Various soil-rock mixed landslides occur in the natural environment. Carried along in the slide, boulders will eventually come to rest. The origin of boulder motion provides crucial constraints for inferring geological events. To overcome the challenges posed by the limited visibility within landslides and the subsequent difficulty in observing boulder motion, we propose a novel device to measure three-axis acceleration and angular velocity using Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) technology. By comparing with the traditional high-speed camera, the efficacy of the IMU sphere is validated. In the study of boulder movements within landslides, we employ the IMU sphere to characterize boulders. Through experiments varying two key parameters—the initial position of the IMU sphere and the mass of fine particles—this study identifies three distinct final deposition states of the IMU sphere: separate, partially submerged, and completely submerged. By analyzing the potential and kinetic energy during the sliding process of the IMU sphere, we delve into the combined effects of motion enhancement due to landslide deformation and motion hindrance as the IMU sphere passes through fine particles, thereby revealing the underlying movement mechanisms of boulders within landslides. Analysis of leading wave heights indicates minimal sensitivity to the initial position of the IMU sphere, with the mass of fine particles exerting the primary influence. At last, through a comprehensive analysis of the IMU sphere's motion, a novel positional parameter is introduced, leading to the identification of motion mechanisms and distinct phase diagrams depicting deposition states.

Effectiveness of composite fume suppression and deodorizing agents in improving performance and reducing emissions of rubber modified asphalt

The incorporation of crumb rubber (CR) modifiers significantly enhances the road performance of asphalt binders. However, the harmful emissions generated during their production and construction processes have a considerable negative impact on the environment. This study introduced composite fume suppression and deodorizing agents (CSDAs), formulating four distinct fume suppression and deodorizing rubber modified asphalts (SDRMAs). Microscale testing methods were employed to analyze the micro-morphology, physicochemical properties, and thermal stability of SDRMA. Fume tests were conducted to evaluate the fume suppression performance of CSDA, and the emission behavior and suppression mechanisms were investigated using mass balance methods and electrochemical sensors. Additionally, the high and low-temperature rheological properties and storage stability of SDRMA were comprehensively analyzed using tools such as the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) and bending beam rheometer (BBR). The results indicated that CSDA effectively suppressed the harmful emissions of rubber modified asphalt (RMA). Compared to regular RMA, the four types of SDRMAs demonstrated a reduction in average fume emissions, particulate matter mass, and H2S gas concentration by 40.1%, 21.6%, and 47.0%, respectively. Furthermore, the addition of CSDA improved the high-temperature performance and storage stability of the modified asphalt, effectively reducing the environmental hazards and energy consumption during the production and storage of RMA, thereby facilitating the eco-friendly application and energy-saving emission reduction of RMA.

Algorithm for improving the sizing accuracy in real-time bioaerosol single particle mass spectrometer

Algorithm for improving the sizing accuracy in real-time bioaerosol single particle mass spectrometer

Exposure assessment to fine and ultrafine particulate matter during welding activity in the maintenance shop of a steelmaking factory

Welding fumes are a main source of occupational exposure to particulate matter (PM), besides gases and ultraviolet radiations, that involves millions of operators worldwide and is related to several health effects, including lung cancer. Our study aims to evaluate the exposure to fine and ultrafine airborne particulate in welding operators working in a steel making factory.In October 2019, air monitoring was performed for four days in five different welding scenarios and in the external area of a steelmaking factory to assess the exposure to airborne particles, ultrafine (UFP) particulate and inhalable fraction, during welding activities. The airborne particles distribution as particle number and mass concentration were measured using a low-pressure electric impactor, model ELPI™ (range of sampling 0.006 μm and 10 μm), whereas the airborne inhalable fraction was collected by filtration, using the IOM Sampler selector.The particle concentration, i.e. the number of particles per cm3 (part/cm3) showed significantly higher exposure figures for nanoscale particles, especially for the fractions included in the last 4 stages sampled by ELPI (from 0.010 μm to 0.071 μm), the figure representing between 85 % and 91 % of the total, whereas for the last 7 stages (0.010 μm–0.314 μm), they represented from 98 % to 99 % of the total. The average figure was approximately 5.01 × 104 part/cm3, while the maximum average was 1.95 × 105 part/cm3 on TIG welding, with a peak of 1.52 × 107 parts/cm3. In terms of mass concentration, the levels of PM inhalable fraction ranged between 0.1 mg/m3 and 1.08 mg/m3.The results of the present study substantially confirm previous studies regarding the distributions in terms of number and mass of welding fumes for SMAW and TIG techniques on steel, the mass concentration levels resulting within the permissible exposure limits (PEL) indicated by OSHA regulations. The results highlighted the importance of the efficiency of localized aspiration systems and the need to apply prevention and protection measures despite the low levels of exposure measured in terms of mass. ConclusionOverall, The particle number concentrations showed an important contribution in the emission of UFP compared to background levels. The PM inhalable fraction was substantially contained within the PEL. Further studies are needed to better understand the chemical characterization of the particulate also considering further variables of the working process that could influence the levels of exposure to welding fumes.

In-vehicle air quality in public buses during real-world trips in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Urban air quality shows notable variability across various microenvironments. Transport-related microenvironments often have one of the highest air pollution levels, where commuters have significant exposure to air pollutants. In Kathmandu Valley (KV), Nepal, passengers’ exposure to air pollutants in such microenvironments remain a poorly understood issue. In this study, we analyzed cabin air quality and ventilation rates in public buses operated in KV. In-cabin and in-route ambient air pollution levels were monitored during real-world bus operations in 32 trips on a test route selected in the core city area. A CO2 mass balance model was applied to estimate cabin ventilation rates. The mean in-cabin and outdoor PM2.5 concentrations were 95.9 ± 40.4 (mean ± standard deviation) and 94.7 ± 32.4 μg/m3, respectively. Likewise, mean in-cabin and outdoor PM1 concentrations were 72.5 ± 31.3 and 69.7 ± 25.3 μg/m3, respectively, with mean PM1 to PM2.5 ratio >0.75, indicating that a majority of particle mass was in the sub-micron size range, which is often more health-hazardous. We estimated passengers’ inhalation dose for PM2.5 and PM1 as 5.65 ± 2.32 and 4.27 ± 1.79 μg/km, respectively. Among various factors considered, traffic hour significantly affected both in-cabin and ambient particulate matter concentrations. The trip-average in-cabin CO2 concentration ranged from 513 to 1230 ppm, whereas cabin ventilation rates ranged from 8.0 to 72.4 L/s/person. Ventilation levels in a majority of bus trips were inadequate, especially considering the recommended thresholds to reduce the transmission risk of airborne diseases. Setting standards for ventilation and air conditioning systems in public buses is crucial to ensure thermal comfort, protect bus commuters from the harmful impacts of air pollution, and to improve public transport services in KV.

Chemical Fate of Particulate Sulfur from Nighttime Oxidation of Thiophene.

Sulfur-containing volatile organic compounds emitted during wildfire events, such as dimethyl sulfide, are known to form secondary aerosols containing inorganic sulfate (SO4 2-) and surfactant-like organic compounds; however, little is known about the fate of sulfur in other emitted reduced organosulfur species. This study aimed to determine the sulfurous product distribution resulting from the nighttime oxidation of thiophene as a model system. Ion chromatography (IC) and aerosol mass spectrometry (a mini aerosol mass spectrometer, mAMS) were used to constrain the proportions of sulfurous compounds produced under wildfire-relevant conditions ([NO2]/[O3] = 0.1). With constraints from IC, results indicated that the sulfurous particle mass consisted of 30.3 ± 6.6% SO4 2-, while mAMS fractionation attributed 24.5 ± 1.6% of total sulfate signal to SO4 2-, 15.4 ± 1.9% to organosulfates, and 60.1 ± 0.9% to sulfonates. Empirical formulas of organosulfur products were identified as C1-C8 organosulfates and sulfonates using complementary mass spectrometry techniques. This study highlights the nighttime oxidation of thiophene and its derivatives as a source of SO4 2- and particulate organosulfur compounds, which have important implications for the atmospheric sulfur budget and aerosol/droplet physical and chemical properties.

Thermal Vacuum Synthesis: Physical Processes in Nanomaterial Production

The thermovacuum process offers an efficient and cost-effective method for producing nanomaterials by ensuring the continuous flow of dispersed material inside a spiral heating element. This is achieved by introducing the material into the heating element's cavity along with air, forming a two-phase gas-solid particle system. The material moves upward through the heated space, where pressure gradually decreases. Experimental studies on materials like carbon, brown coal, and zirconium dioxide indicate specific conditions are necessary for the system's continuous operation. One key requirement is that the mass of solid particles should not exceed 1.0 to 1.2 grams per liter of air entering the heating element. This limit ensures that nanodispersed and finely dispersed particles can move freely, avoiding collisions and allowing faster-moving particles to overtake slower ones. These particles increase in velocity and temperature as they pass through the heating element, with changes in heat capacity and particle motion contributing to wave motion and pulsed heat loads. The velocity at which the material particles travel depends on the thermal radiation from the heater walls and the energy generated by local pulse steam explosions, which create shock waves. Higher explosion energy results in increased particle velocity, greater impact angles against the heater walls, and higher environmental temperatures. These conditions lead to accelerated electron, proton, and other charged particle flows, forming plasma clots and neutrino clouds. The nanoparticles take various forms, including nanotubes, fullerenes, thin films, and crystals, reaching velocities up to a thousand kilometers per second and heating temperatures of up to 17 million degrees during pulses. This process consistently subjects the material to force, heat, deformation, and ionization, expediting the creation of nanodispersed materials with enhanced physicochemical and mechanical properties. The thermovacuum process not only improves the efficiency of thermotechnological equipment but also reduces energy consumption, production time, and costs. The research findings support its use in the continuous and effective production of high-quality nanomaterials.

Two-loop QED/QCD Corrections for Polarized γγ → γγ Process in SANCphot

The new version of the SANCphot integrator has been developed for fast and stable numerical calculations up to two loops for polarized light-by-light scattering. One-loop modules based on the helicity formalism with massive particles and two-loop modules with massless particles inside the loops are used. The presented study is driven by the potential of polarized photon beams to probe the high energy region. This study is a contribution to the research program of the CEPC project being under development in China.

Neutralino dark matter in the extension of MSSM with two triplets and singlet

In an extension of MSSM with two triplets and a singlet, called the TNMSSM, there are seven neutralinos which can enrich the study of cold dark matter if one expects that the weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) is responsible for the observation of Planck satellite. Such a model, compared to the MSSM, can naturally offer a solution to the μ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\mu $$\\end{document} problem, and its lightest neutralino, which is bino-like, can also provide a correct relic density by using the coannihilation mechanism due to the newly added triplinos. Taking into account the related experimental measurements, such as the bound on the SM-like Higgs mass, the B meson rare decays, the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon aμ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$a_\\mu $$\\end{document}, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) measurements and the latest dark matter direct detection experiment LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ), the TNMSSM parameter space can be strictly limited. In respect to all the constraints mentioned above, we find that a bino-like neutralino with a mass in the region [100,450]GeV\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$[100, 450]~\ extrm{GeV}$$\\end{document} can successfully account for the correct dark matter relic density. Additionally, most of the viable parameter space can be tested in the near future experiments such as the Xenon-nT experiment or LHC.

Sleep Fragmentation Results in Novel Set-shifting Decrements in GCR-exposed Male and Female Rats.

The prolonged exposure to multiple spaceflight stressors during long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars will be challenging to the physical and mental health of the astronauts. Ground-based studies have reported that attentional set-shifting task (ATSET) performance is impaired after space radiation (SR) exposure. At certain times during deep-space missions, astronauts will likely have to contend with the combined impacts of SR and sleep perturbation. In rats, poor quality, fragmented sleep adversely impacts performance in multiple cognitive tasks, including the ATSET task. While both SR and sleep perturbations independently cause cognitive performance deficits, the incidence, severity and exact nature of those decrements following combined exposure to these flight stressors is largely unknown. This study established the impact that a single night of fragmented sleep has on ATSET performance in both male and female rats exposed to 10 cGy of galactic cosmic ray simulation (GCRsim). The GCRsim beam is a complex beam that mimics the mass and energy spectra of the SR particles that an astronaut will be exposed to within the spacecraft. Rats that had no obvious ATSET performance decrements when normally rested were subjected to fragmented sleep and their ATSET performance reassessed. Sleep fragmentation resulted in significant ATSET performance decrements in GCRsim-exposed rats, with specific performance decrements being observed in stages where attention or cue shifting is extensively used. Performance decrements in these stages are rarely observed after SR exposure. While both male and female rats exhibited latent sleep-related performance decrements, these were sex dependent, with male and female rats exhibiting different types of performance decrements (either reduced processing speed or task completion efficiency) in different stages of the ATSET task. This study suggests that SR-induced cognitive impairment may not be fully evident in normally rested rats, with an underestimation of both the incidence and nature of performance decrements that could occur when multiple space flight stressors are present. These data suggest that that there may be synergistic interactions between multiple space flight stressors that may not be easily predicted from their independent actions.

Neutron star collapse from accretion: A probe of massive dark matter particles

We explore the multi-scatter capturing of the massive dark matter (DM) particle inside the neutron star via a momentum-dependent dark matter-nucleon scattering cross-section. We find that the capturing enhanced for the positive velocity and momentum transfer dependent DM-nucleon scattering in comparison with the constant cross-section case. Further, a large capture of the DM particles can be thermalized and lead to black hole formation and, therefore, destroy the neutron star. Using the observation of the old neutron star in the DM-dominated region, we obtain strong constraints on massive DM parameters.

Modeling the interstellar dust detections by DESTINY[formula omitted] I: Instrumental constraints and detectability of organic compounds

The DESTINY+ spacecraft will be launched to the active asteroid (3200) Phaethon in 2025. The spacecraft will be equipped with the DESTINY+ Dust Analyzer (DDA) which will be a time-of-flight impact ionization mass spectrometer. In addition to the composition of impacting dust particles, the instrument will measure the particle mass, velocity vector, and surface charge. Here, we study the detection conditions of DDA for interstellar dust during the DESTINY+ mission. We use the interstellar dust module of the Interplanetary Meteoroid environment for EXploration model (IMEX Sterken et al., 2013; Strub et al., 2019) to simulate the flow of interstellar dust through the Solar System. Extending earlier work by Krüger et al. (2019b) we consider the entire DESTINY+ mission, i.e. the Earth-orbiting phase of the spacecraft during the initial approximately 1.5 years after launch, the nominal interplanetary mission phase up to the Phaethon flyby, and a four-years mission extension beyond the Phaethon flyby. The latter may include additional asteroid flybys. For predicting dust fluxes and fluences we take into account a technical constraint for DDA not to point closer than 90° towards the Sun direction for health and safety reasons of the instrument and in order to avoid electrical noise generated by photoelectrons. For the Earth orbiting phase after launch of DESTINY+ our simulations predict that up to 28 interstellar particles will be detectable with DDA in 2026. In the following years the interplanetary magnetic field changes to a focussing configuration for small (≲0.1μm) interstellar dust particles. This increases the total number of detectable particles to 50 during the interplanetary mission of DESTINY+ in 2027. In 2028 and 2029/30 approximately 160 and 190 particles will be detectable, respectively, followed by about 500 in 2030/31. We also make predictions for the detectability of organic compounds contained in the interstellar particles which is a strong function of the particle impact speed onto the detector. While organic compounds will be measurable only in a negligible number of particles during the Earth orbiting and the nominal interplanetary mission phases, a few 10s of interstellar particle detections with measurable organic compounds are predicted for the extended mission from 2028 to 2031.

Cosmological evolution of dark matter subhaloes under tidal stripping by growing Milky Way-like galaxies

Abstract We present the findings of a comprehensive and detailed analysis of merger tree data from ultra-high-resolution cosmological $N$-body simulations. The analysis, conducted with a particle mass resolution of $5 \times 10^3\, h^{-1}\, M_{\odot }$ and a halo mass resolution of $10^7\, h^{-1}\, M_{\odot }$, provides sufficient accuracy to suppress numerical artefacts. This study elucidates the dynamical evolution of subhaloes associated with the Milky Way-like host haloes. Unlike more massive dark matter haloes, which have been extensively studied, these subhaloes follow a distinct mass evolution pattern: an initial accretion phase, followed by a tidal stripping phase where mass is lost due to the tidal forces of the host halo. The transition from accretion to stripping, where subhaloes reach their maximum mass, occurs around a redshift of $z\simeq 1$. Smaller subhaloes reach this point earlier, while larger ones do so later. Our analysis reveals that over 80% of subhaloes have experienced mass loss, underscoring the universality of tidal stripping in subhalo evolution. Additionally, we derived the eccentricities and pericentre distances of subhalo orbits from the simulations and compare them with those of nearby satellite galaxies observed by the Gaia satellite. The results demonstrate a significant alignment between the orbital elements predicted by the cold dark matter model and the observed data, providing robust support for the model as a credible candidate for dark matter.

Self‐Organization of Relaxed Structures in the Lunar Atmosphere

ABSTRACTThe study investigates the relaxation of a three‐component dusty plasma in the lunar atmosphere. By employing Ampère's law with momentum balance equation of the plasma species, which includes an electron, a positive ion, and a negatively charged dust particle, a Triple Beltrami (TB) state is obtained. This TB state is characterized by three scale parameters, which may be real or complex. The Cartesian coordinate geometry is employed to analyze the magnetic field profiles. The Beltrami parameters, mass of negative charged dust particulates and density variations at different height and angle have a significant impact on the magnetic properties of the self‐organized structures in lunar atmosphere. The study reveals that all scale parameters associated with diamagnetic structures are real and complex, while all scale parameters for paramagnetic structures are real. It has been shown that the magnetic field, along with its complex conjugate and real part, increases with height and angle, and only diamagnetic structures are formed in the lunar atmosphere. The findings of this study should help to explain relaxed structures found in other astronomical objects and in lab settings including negatively charged dust particles, ions, and electrons.