Participatory Forestry Research Articles

Conflicts Between Policy and Local People in Valuing Non-timber Forest Products: Perspectives from Nepal

The paper presents an historical account of policy in Nepal regarding non-timber forest product management, and then analyzes the policy in terms of national and local perspectives on the values of these products. It is demonstrated that the conflict between policy-makers and local people has resulted in degradation of forest resources, particularly non-timber forest products. Based upon casestudies, it is shown that although the valuation gap is narrowing with the implementation of participatory forestry, local perspectives have not been adequately accommodated by state policies. Finally, it is suggested that policy guidelines be based upon local perspectives in order to realize the potential contribution of non-timber forest products to sustainable forest management and thenational economy.

DRAWING EXPERIENCES ON PARTICIPATORY FORESTRY EXTENSION APPROACHES: IMPLICATION FOR FORESTRY EXTENSION IN ETHIOPIA

Forestry extension in Ethiopia has been mirrored in the agriculture extension package as one aspect commonly to address land and forest degradation. In contrast to the top-down approach, the participatory extension has given momentum to promote afforestation and rehabilitation of degraded land for transferring sufficient knowledge and addressing growers’ choices to raise tree species for various purposes. However, the research on forestry-related participatory technology development, adaption, and extension seems overlooked. The purpose of this review was to draw on the experiences of countries with low economic development on participatory forestry technologies development and extension. Hence, I reviewed good practices of various selected countries where forestry participatory extension approaches have been effective. The result of the review shows that participatory extension approaches like group training, demonstration trial, farmer's field school, and community-based extension approaches have been effective in forest management and livelihood development in the forest sector. Therefore, the review implies that key forestry stakeholders engaging in research, technology development and extension should prioritize participatory approaches to address both community needs and ecological aspects.

Calling for landscape-level assessments of participatory forestry's role in improving forest biophysical conditions

Participatory forest management (PFM) has been applied to address declining tropical forest conditions. In the literature, there is a mixed evidence on PFM's role in improving forest conditions. However, most assessments ignore a relationship between household distance from PFM forests and impacts to non-PFM forests albeit being an essential aspect. Some PFM assessments show that distance matters in determining an individual's participation But, sparsely discussing the distance in relation to forest biophysical conditions in a landscape context. Drawing on the landscape approach and insights from Miombo forests of Kilwa in southern Tanzania, we illustrate the importance of studying PFM schemes in a landscape context to illuminate the relationship between household distance from PFM forests and impacts to non-PFM forests. Our study villages have forest abundances in areas between households and PFM forests. The average distance between households and PFM forests is 7.8 km. The long distances and forest abundances produce an ‘outbound effect’, whereby degrading and deforesting activities shift from PFM to non-PFM forests. Our analysis calls for landscape-level assessments that include forests under different governance regimes even those in unreserved landscapes – non-PFM forests. This is important for two reasons. First, for generating locally grounded contextual insights necessary for developing understandings of global forest conservation efforts from the ‘ground up’. Second, for revealing correct forest conditions in the entire landscape critical in the light of ongoing national and international interests to manage trees inside and outside designated forest reserves for both carbon sequestration and landscape restoration.

Participatory forestry improves mangrove forest management in Kenya

Participatory forestry has been recognized as a tool for improving tropical forest management. The current study assessed the impacts of participatory forest management (PFM) on the structure and regeneration of a mangrove forest at Gazi Bay, Kenya. Data were collected along belt transects perpendicular to the waterline in both co-managed and state-managed mangrove forests. Basal area and standing density were significantly higher in the co-managed mangrove forests (16 m2/ha and 4 341 tree/ha) as compared to the state forests (eastern block 10.3 m2/ha and 2 673 trees/ha; western block 6.2 m2/ha and 2 436 trees/ha). There were significantly higher (p = 0.0068) densities of merchantable poles in community-managed as compared to state-managed forests. Natural regeneration patterns in community-managed and state-managed forests were deemed adequate to support the recovery of both forests. The results demonstrate that community participation contributes to improved management of mangrove forests and is in agreement with the principles of sustainable forest management.

A materialist-idealist divide? Policy and practice in participatory mangrove rehabilitation in the Philippines

Participatory forestry needs to revisit the notion of what “participation” means rather than uncritically follow the technobureaucratic guidelines of baseline assessment and monitoring. In this study, we are concerned about materialism and idealism in the policy and practice of participatory mangrove rehabilitation in the Philippines. The analysis is based on the review of mangrove policies and a case study of a successful project, the Katunggan Ecopark. Empowerment does not necessarily follow a bottom-up strategy, but is given as an impetus by the traditional authority after capitalizing on the rhetoric of participation and limiting the decision-making power of the members of the community during the incipient stages of the project. This has put the local communities to work despite having anxieties over the project’s positive promises. Social cohesion, a volunteer network, and the community’s sense of ownership of the success of the project that was not previously felt before, can be gained through evidence from the material success of rehabilitation. With the transformation of the denuded area to a mangrove forest, power was decentralized from the local government authority to the people’s organization. Recognizing the difference between the materialist and idealist perspectives and learning to negotiate between the two can significantly inform pragmatic approaches to environmental policy and governance. More studies that reflect on the inconsistencies and biases of the materialist-idealist divide in both policy and practice should be done to further our understanding of a dynamic, flexible, and transformative participatory process.

A Study on the Participatory Forestry Land Use and Farming Practices in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Bangladesh

The study explored the genesis and current status and forms of land use and farming practices in Chittagong hill tracts region of Bangladesh. Some major observations include the following: (i) Lands allotted for horticulture and agriculture were converted to forestry, agro-forestry and agriculture by the participants of the government and NGO projects. Livestock rearing was found as a common practice, (ii) Forestry was preferred topographically as a suitable land use in the region. Both the government and NGO participants were found to be practicing some form of pure forestry, particularly in the comparatively steep slopes. (Hi) Agroforestry, by combining long gestation forestry with short-term horticultural and agricultural species, was found to be the dominant land use practice in CHT. (iv) Agriculture was found as a general land use practice in CHT, mainly following the traditional system (v) Inter-sectoral coordination among the PF agencies and necessary service provision by GO and NGO agencies were almost absent. Strong linkages through inter-sectoral coordination for both GO and NGO agencies must be undertaken in order to involve related agencies in land-based development interventions.

Evaluation of good governance in a participatory forestry program: A case study in Madhupur Sal forests of Bangladesh

Participatory forestry programs in Bangladesh have been implemented since 1980’s to ensure forest conservation along with empowerment of local people, who depend on forest resources. Despite the establishment of legal and institutional frameworks for devolving a meaningful authority to local people, participatory forestry in Bangladesh has been facing many governance challenges. Therefore local people involvement in forest governance needs to be evaluated. A quantitative and qualitative research method has been applied to investigate a forest governance framework for evaluating the efficacy of participatory forestry in Bangladesh. Field data were collected by semi-structured interview of 120 local forest participants using scoring of qualitative data on a point scale (1–5).The study was based on the proposed modified framework for evaluation of good governance in terms of participation, transparency and efficiency. Analysis of data revealed that participation in benefit sharing received the highest score (3.90), while the lowest in the management committee meeting (2.12). Transparency in decision-making process received the lowest score (2.42). Similarly efficiency in handling tree farming fund (TFF) has the lowest score (2.35). In overall governance level, participation received the highest score (3.12), while transparency received the lowest (2.72). Findings indicate that poor governance still exists in participatory forestry program because of low level of participation and lack of transparency in handling tree farming fund (TFF). Therefore pragmatic approaches like strengthening monitoring mechanism, providing incentives for rule compliances need to be adopted to harness the benefit of good governance of a participatory forestry program. The findings of this study would be useful to forest policy-makers, development official and local forest practitioners in formulating effective policies for participatory forest management programs in Bangladesh and other developing countries. Our finding has also an implication on forest governance discourse in participatory forest management regimes.

Community forest use and dependence for livelihoods in Fako Division, South West Region of Cameroon

This study assessed the extent, patterns and socio-demographic determinants of community forest use and dependence for livelihood in three community forests areas in Fako Division, Cameroon. The data, collected principally through a questionnaire administered to 295 selected community members, was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Science 20. The study found that most (61.3%) of the respondents directly use the community forest, principally for fuelwood collection (89.4%), NTFPs harvesting (41.3%), subsistence farming (40%) and timber exploitation (25.7%). Community forest use was significantly predicted by user’s location (p=0.039), gender (p=0.011), primary occupation (p=0.00), level of education (p=0.00), income level (p=0.023), origin (p=0.010) and membership in Community Forest Management Group (p=0.025). Furthermore, it was observed that most (53.1%) of the forest users depended on the forest for 61-100% of their household food, energy and material needs while the sales of forest resources accounted for 61-100% of the monthly income of 57.9% others. The study concluded that community forest resources make up a considerable portion of the livelihood portfolio of many forest-fringe households in the area and recommended among other things improvements in the current land tenure policy to enable local stakeholders to fully embrace participatory forestry and the training of forest users on value adding activities to enhance returns from the commercialization of forest products

15. Africa

African countries are always looking for effectiveness and efficiency of their environmental laws. This, of course, requires not only sufficient financial means but also institutional reforms. It is also reflected in the sincere adherence to the concepts of the commons, harmony with nature, and earth jurisprudence as well as in the broader view of the law—the juridicity—all of them adapted to the African context. The validation workshop on the roadmap for more effective participatory forestry in Central Africa took place on 30–1 May in Brazzaville, Congo. The main objective of the workshop was to review and validate the roadmap for more effective participatory forestry in Central Africa (the Brazzaville roadmap). Fifty participants took part, representing, among others, the Forestry Ministries of the Central African Forest Commission (COMIFAC) countries. The Brazzaville roadmap sets the following eight priorities: ... For each of these priorities, the roadmap defines several actions to be carried out and objectives to be achieved by 2021 and 2025. In this respect, the emphasis is on the effective recognition and exercise of the rights of Indigenous peoples, especially on land and forest resources, the need for entrepreneurship, and the desire for more integrated management, the future of community forests ‘being the subject of a defined regime characterized by a pattern of landscape governance affecting forestry as well as agriculture with a multi-user approach (beyond timber)’ (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rendre la foresterie participative plus efficace en Afrique centrale dans le contexte de l’agenda 2030: La feuille de route de Brazzaville (2018), 20). The Brazzaville roadmap was finally validated with amendments by the workshop participants.

Investigación ecológica participativa como apoyo de procesos de manejo y restauración forestal, agroforestal y silvopastoril en territorios campesinos. Experiencias recientes y retos en la sierra Madre de Chiapas, México

Those of us who conduct forest and agroforest ecological research increasingly recognize the interaction between ecological and social processes and join multi and transdisciplinary research and action efforts involving multiple stakeholders. This has changed in various degrees our goals, concepts, scales, methods and practices. Ecological participatory forestry and agroforestry research (IPEFA) is conceived and practiced in many different ways, defined by the will of those who investigate and (or) the circumstances they face. Here we present and make a reflection of our direct experience in two IPEFA processes we have coordinated in the last decade in poor rural territories of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas: the upper basin of El Tablón River in the Biosphere Reserve La Sepultura (LGB), and the basins of the rivers Xelajú and Bacantón (High Grijalva), in the municipalities of Motozintla and Mazapa (MGE). We present achievements, but above all highlight some of the biggest challenges we have faced, and those roads that did not always lead to good results. We believe that several of these academic, social, and institutional challenges are shared by Mexican and international researchers that practices IPEFA and continually strive to overcome them.

Gendered participation in community forest governance in India

ABSTRACTRecent forest governance practices in India have responded to environmental change and subsequent livelihood insecurity by focusing resource governance policies on communities. A paradigm shift has occurred involving participatory inclusive bottom-up approaches, rather than state-centric, top-down forestry. With the formulation of the 1988 National Forest Policy, several variants of participatory models of forest governance – social forestry, community forestry, joint forest management – have been tried out, with differing degrees of success. The 2006 Forests Right Act adopts a rights-based approach to participatory forestry to address the serious concerns of environmental degradation, livelihood insecurity, tenure reforms and questions of autonomy and identity of forest-dependent communities. Using mainly qualitative methodology, this paper reviews forest governance policies and undertakes a critical examination of recent participatory forestry practices. Drawing empirical evidence from two community-based forest governance institutions in the state of Odisha in eastern India, the paper demonstrates how participatory forestry programmes, albeit successful, may be exclusionary with regard to women’s engagement in cases where their involvement is under-represented.

An overview of participatory forestry in Nepal's Terai

Abstract on PDFParticipatory

Forest Management for Enhancing Ecosystem Services in the Climate Change Scenario of Bangladesh

Ecosystem services of forests are essential for human life. As the human population increases, the demand for ecosystem services also increases and thereby the amount of forest is declining, taking their ecosystem services with them and leaving the remaining forests and their services more significant and scarce. The once biodiversity rich forests of Bangladesh have undergone massive deforestation and degradation due to high population pressure and lack of proper management. In recent years there has been a substantial shift in emphasis in forest management from maximizing yield towards maximizing sustainability through increased participation of local population, conserving biodiversity, and maintaining ecosystem services. New forest management systems are added to address climate change scenario, such as agroforestry, strip plantation, participatory forestry on encroached forest, community based mangrove afforestation on newly accreted land in the coastal area and conservation area management to preserve wildlife habitat and biodiversity. This paper presents a brief account of ecosystem services of forests that are crucial for climate change adaptation and mitigation. Some studies related to ecosystem services interaction with their management implications are reviewed; valuation of ecosystem services is studied and recommends management techniques to ensure more effective conservation of existing forest and biodiversity resources are recommended. Conservation area management proved as efficient, successful and cost-effective tool for maintaining ecosystem services in the climate change context, as they often protect the last remaining large areas of natural habitats. Increasing the protected area network and improving management techniques can enhance the resilience of ecosystem to climate change and safeguard vital ecosystem services.

Unpacking the impacts of ‘participatory’ forestry policies: Evidence from Kenya

We evaluate the livelihoods of member and non-members of Community Forestry Associations under Kenya's participatory forest management (PFM) programme. We use propensity score matching of households based on recall based data from before implementation of PFM from 286 households and comparison of current incomes (2012), as well as review of records and interviews. Results reveal that members have higher total and forest-related incomes than non-members and indicate that impacts derive from labour and market opportunities supported by donor institutions, more than from differential access to forest products. In terms of governance the Kenya Forest Service largely remains in control of decision-making. Thus, PFM resembles Integrated Conservation and Development Project (ICDP) approaches. We conclude that current forest governance approaches in Kenya appear not to support participation in practice. Further, we conclude that impact evaluations must examine both outcomes and participatory forestry to provide meaningful policy evidence.

Current pathways towards good forest governance for ecosystem services in the former Soviet republic Tajikistan

As one of the former Soviet republics, Tajikistan is facing a slow transition from a communist command-and-control system to a more market oriented, decentralized and participatory forestry. In the last 25years, the country's forestry sector has undergone several reorganizations. In the process of a current reform, the overall aim of this study is to gain a broader understanding of the current state of forest sector in Tajikistan. Our specific objectives are a) to describe the current institutional network's complexity, (b) to analyze stakeholders' perceptions on the key challenges towards good forest governance, (c) and give recommendations to tackle the key challenges, so that important forest ecosystem services (ES) may be enhanced, thus, also contribute to the development of the sector. We elaborate a generic framework, which simplifies complex interaction of governance and forests ecosystem services. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through questionnaire-based interviews with stakeholders of the forestry sector. The results indicate that the forestry sector is still far from representing good forest governance, however the newly established structure seems to be a first step. Yet, challenges in establishing sound legal frameworks, decision-making transparency, and implementation enforcement must still be overcome. While it is too early and challenging to assess the impacts of forest governance on ES and vice versa, the survey respondents highlight the importance of provisioning services for the development of the forest sector. Given the post-Soviet background, almost all member countries developed along similar lines. Therefore, the study results are not only of significance for Tajikistan, but also countries with similar history and socio-economic context.

Does actor power impede outcomes in participatory agroforestry approach? Evidence from Sal forests area, Bangladesh

Over the last two decades, participatory forestry practices have gained a remarkable shift from top down traditional forest management to more people-oriented approaches in Bangladesh. The new approaches have involved many actors; however, their relative role or actor power has not been investigated thoroughly. Hence, the study was undertaken to identify the relative role of actors in participatory agroforestry program (PAP) and assess how the interests of powerful actors influence the social, economic and ecological outcomes of PAP. Using different quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques, the study identified twenty actors, representing a diversity of interests in PAP in Madhupur Sal forests area. The actors’ power analysis suggested that the forest department evidenced itself as the most powerful and influential actor in every dimensions of power. The study argues that PAP has no doubt led a new elucidation of forest management with a strategy to include local people so as to improve Sal forests condition and livelihoods of local communities. At the same time, exercising of power especially from the powerful actors has strictly controlled the empowerment and access of local people, and apparently reduced the participants’ opportunities to maximize outcomes of PAP. So, there is an immediate need to empower local participants, by which they can easily play the central role in decision making and governing all of their development activities.

The politics of expertise in participatory forestry: a case from Tanzania

In this paper, we show how the framing of a community-based forest management (CBFM) intervention implies the professionalization of forest management and the privileging of certain forms of knowledge in a village in Tanzania. We describe how the framing of CBFM in technical and procedural terms, and the subsequent construction of expertise by implementers through training, combine with existing signifiers of social stratification to shape struggles over participation and access to benefits from forest use and management. We also describe how the perceived necessity of expertise is not questioned by village residents, only the exclusive and anti-democratic consequences of the way it comes to be reproduced. Based on our study, we call for a careful reconsideration of the framing of participatory forestry approaches as professionalization to strike a balance between the need for expertise and the costs and potential excluding effects associated with meeting this need.

Effects of participatory forest management on livelihood capitals of the community in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh

In Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, we surveyed 80 households to observe the effects of participatory forestry (PF) on the livelihood of local participants. We analyzed the effects on livelihood capitals to compare in two ways: (1) before and after participation, and (2) participants and non-participants. In Cox's Bazar, there were some significant changes regarding income sources, but annual income was little changed after participation in participatory forestry. Literacy (about 10 % after participation) and mobile phone ownership (75 %) were significantly higher than before. Housing conditions were better (brick walls: 7.5 %; sun-grass roof: 70 %) than those of non-participants (brick walls: 0 %; sun-grass roof: 77.5 %). PF ensured legal rights on forest lands for participants, while non-participants were illegally living on public forestland. However, expenses were considerably higher than income; people were still struggling with poverty and many of them suffered from malnutrition. This ultimately put pressure on all capital. People had redistributed their available capital to cope with adversity, and there was a trend toward involvement in economic activities other than forests. Our study found that social capital was more influenced by PF more than other capitals. Due to the involvement with the PF program, people were feeling much more secure, women had elevated status, and social relationships became stronger.

Actors’ Power, Livelihood Assets and Participatory Forestry in Bangladesh: Evidence from the Sal Forests Area

Decentralize in forest management policies towards more people-oriented approaches has become major policy trends in many of the world’s developing countries during the last decade. However, the power of important actors to misuse the participatory forestry (PF) approach for their self-interests has been stated as a main problem to success. So, this study attempted to identify the most powerful actors and the extent at which they influence the outcomes of PF, and also to measure the impact of PF on livelihood assets of participants. The empirical data were collected from the well-established PF programs at Madhupur Sal forests area of Bangladesh. The results showed that the forest department (FD) proved itself as the most powerful and influential actor in every element of power analysis in PF. Regarding to livelihood analysis, the results revealed that the overall value of participants’ livelihood assets was 0.85 and it was significantly differed from the non-participants value of 0.66. However, the development of human, physical and financial assets was not indicating a decent improvement like as natural and social assets of participants. So, it is necessary to pay more attention to boost up participants’ human and financial assets through intensive training and adopting proper tree-crop production techniques, and also ensuring alternative livelihoods approaches to the local people. In addition, the local government will need to pay more emphasis on constructing village roads and infrastructure so as to enhance physical assets of the local people. Finally, the study would recommend promoting PF with apposite government facilities and also empowering local participants in order to balance the power among different actors, and this will facilitate the participants in governing all of their development activities efficiently.

AGRO·FORESTRY HOME·GARDENS IN KALUTARA DISTRICT A PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)

Promotion of agro-Iorestry in home-gardens has been greatly emphasized as a nationalpriority. in the new amendments of forest-policy in Sri Lanka. Further, development ofhomestead gardens is one of the major component or the Participatory Forestry Project ofthe Forest Department. Evidently, the home gardens contribute a substantial amount offood, timber, fuel-wood, fodder etc., of the country. In most of these home-gardens, thecanopy cover is dense with a closure of over 75 percent.The total extent of land under the home-gardens in Kalutara District has significantlydecreased during the last decade. However, the remaining home-gardens are a majorsource of food. timber, and fuel-wood required for household consumption. Moreover,exportable products of the perennial agricultural crops, and fruits required to cater theincreasing demand in the tourism are becoming attractive sources of income from the agroforestryhome-gardens in the district. To improve sustainable agro-Iorcstry home-gardens,an assessment of the present agro-forestry home-gardens in the district is essential.Home centred spatial arrangement in agro-Iorestry reflects different interactions amonghousehold, garden. and gardening as well as socio-economics and indigenous resourcemanagement strategies. Hence, the paper discusses the agro-Iorcstry home-gardens inKal utara district based on the data and information collected through Participatory RuralAppraisal (PRA). The PRA administered the main steps and methods: discussions groupmaps. aggregate maps. wealth runkings, transect walks, participatory transects. venndiagrams. direct matrix, pair-wise ranking and scoring.