Parrot Research Articles

Population trends of the Cape Parrot Poicephalus robustus in the Amatholes, Eastern Cape: trialling ground-based flock photography for demographic and health assessment

Globally, 60% of species in the order Psittaciformes are experiencing population declines. Understanding demographic and health trends in populations is vital for the prioritisation of limited conservation resources. The Cape Parrot Poicephalus robustus is a South African endemic forest species that is endangered by habitat degradation and Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD). In the Amathole region of the Eastern Cape province, Cape Parrots gather in large numbers every autumn to feed at a particular orchard of Pecan trees Carya illinoinensis. This annual event is an opportunity for researchers to assess trends in a population that does not otherwise typically form large flocks. We used a novel, non-invasive method of flock photography analysis between 2017 and 2022 to assess the demographics and PBFD symptoms of the population. A mean of 439 ± SD 127 Cape Parrots visited the orchard on the peak day each year, with 1.2 males per female and 3 adults per juvenile overall. Proportions of juveniles fluctuated between extremes of 70% in 2019 and < 4% in 2020. PBFD symptoms increased markedly in the food-scarce year of 2019, with a gradual recovery seen in the years following. Roosting numbers were also tracked monthly from 2018 to 2022 to indicate local population fluctuations in the study area around Hogsback. An average of 112 ± SD 31 Cape Parrots roosted there, with roost counts notably higher from January to June, bolstered by newly-fledged juveniles prior to their dispersal. This study demonstrates the use of flock photographs as an effective, non-invasive tool to assess the demographics and health of an avian population.

Telomere- and oxidative stress dynamics in Psittacidae species with different longevity trajectories.

Telomeres, conserved DNA sequences at chromosome ends, naturally shorten with age, exacerbated by external factors like environmental challenges and reproduction. Birds, particularly psittacine, are gaining prominence as new aging models over the years because of their unique characteristics. This study explores erythrocyte telomere length (TL) and oxidative stress markers in plasma of long- and short-lived captive birds of the order Psittaciformes over four years. Long-lived birds consistently exhibited longer TL than short-lived ones (p = 0.012) but experienced a more pronounced TL shortening rate (p < 0.001) than short-lived ones. Breeding individuals experienced increased TL shortening compared to non-reproductive counterparts in long-lived birds (p = 0.008). Interestingly, long-lived birds showed a higher total antioxidant capacity than short-lived ones (p < 0.001), which was also increased during breeding (p = 0.026). A significant correlation was found between the telomere length shortening rate within the 4years of study and the accumulated oxidative stress (r = 0.426, p = 0.069) in short-lived birds. These findings shed light on TL and oxidative stress dynamics over time, revealing distinct patterns influenced by life-traits among longevity groups.

DNA damage (8-OHdG) and telomere length in captive Psittacidae birds with different longevity.

Aging is a complex process influenced by internal and external factors. Oxidative stress damages DNA, leading to 8-hydroxy-2' deoxyguanosine formation (8-OHdG). Telomere shortening is considered a biomarker of aging and oxidative stress may enhance its attrition. The ability to manage and repair oxidative stress varies among species and life histories. Avian species, such as Psittacidae birds, exhibit exceptional lifespans despite their physiological characteristics that might suggest otherwise. This study investigates 8-OHdG levels in serum samples from long- and short-lived birds of the order Psittaciformes, examining their relationship with telomere length and antioxidant capacity based on lifespan strategies. Among 43 individuals analyzed 26 belonged to the "long-lived species" group and 17 belonged to the "short-lived species" one. Relative telomere length (rTL) was measured in DNA isolated from whole blood by qPCR, and oxidative stress markers, such as Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) and 8-OHdG, were determined by spectrophotometry in serum samples. Long-lived birds had longer rTL than short-lived ones [1.308 ± 0.11 vs. 0.565 ± 0.13, (p < 0.001)]. On the contrary, short-lived birds showed more DNA damage than their counterparts [3.847 ± 0.351 vs. 2.012 ± 0.308, respectively, (p < 0.001)]. Old birds had shorter rTL than young ones, for both longevity groups (p < 0.001). Although no correlation was found between 8-OHdG levels and age, nor 8-OHdG and telomere length, long-lived birds exhibited 75.42-unit increased TAC levels when increased 8-OHdG concentrations (p = 0.046). These findings highlight distinct patterns of telomere length and oxidative stress influenced by lifespan strategies among avian longevity groups.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a Useful and Low-Cost Tool for Molecular Sexing Psittaciformes under Human Care: An Example of a Collaborative Approach in Mexico

ABSTRACT Sex determination in monomorphic birds is a precondition for captive breeding programs and management and conservation strategies for threatened species. Most species of the order Psittaciformes often present complications since these birds lack external sexual phenotypic traits, making it impossible to differentiate males and females. In the present study, we used molecular techniques to determine the sex of 31 individuals belonging to nine species of the order Psittaciformes kept under human care at the Akumal Monkey Sanctuary & Rescued Animals in Quintana Roo, Mexico. This is a useful and low-cost methodology based on the analysis of the conserved region of the CHD1 gene, which was amplified by PCR with two sets of primers: P8/P2 and 2550F/2718 R. All individuals were successfully sexed with the first set of primers, while only 28 out of 31 samples (90%) could be amplified with the second set. Out of the 31 individuals analyzed, fifteen are female, and seventeen are male. This information represents a handy tool for adequately managing birds under human care, resulting in their reproduction and eventual reintegration into their natural habitat.

Avian Diabetes Mellitus: A Review.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an uncommon, poorly documented metabolic disorder of birds. Extrapolating knowledge from DM in mammals is challenging because of marked differences in avian physiology and metabolism. A literature review from December 1991 to January 2022 identified 14 publications covering 16 diabetic birds, 63% (10/16) of which belonged to the order Psittaciformes with Ara as the predominant genus. No sex predilection was noted, but males generally presented at a younger age. Commonly reported clinical signs included polyuria 94% (15/16), polydipsia 88% (14/16), weight loss 75% (12/16), lethargy 63% (10/16), and polyphagia 38% (6/16). Diagnosis of DM was based on the presence of clinical signs and persistent hyperglycemia 100% (16/16), often with glucosuria 93% (13/14), response to insulin therapy 80% (8/10), and pancreatic pathology 90% (9/10). Specific treatment for DM was initiated in 14 patients, but blood glucose regulation for 6 months or longer was only achieved in 6 birds. Five of the regulated birds were managed with injectable long-acting insulin and 1 with oral glipizide combined with dietary modifications. However, glipizide yielded poor results in other cases, likely attributable to a lack of functional beta cells. Three diabetic birds progressed to remission. Treatment proved unsuccessful for 7 patients with a mean survival time of 36 days from diagnosis. One patient was lost to follow-up, and 2 were euthanized immediately following diagnosis. Histological examination of the pancreas frequently (90%, 9/10) revealed abnormalities including atrophy, fibrosis, and vacuolization of the endocrine islets with or without lymphoplasmacytic pancreatitis. Comorbidities, including hemosiderosis and infection, were common. This review suggests that birds diagnosed with DM are primarily affected by a type I diabetes as observed in dogs and humans. In contrast to mammalian species, avian DM is often associated with underlying disease and a complete clinical workup is essential to diagnose and address secondary disease conditions prior to initiating long-term insulin therapy.

A critically co-endangered feather louse Forficuloecus pezopori n. sp. (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) detected through conservation intervention for the western ground parrot Pezoporus flaviventris (Psittaculidae)

Forficuloecus pezopori Martin, Keatley & Ash n. sp. from the western ground parrot Pezoporus flaviventris North, 1911 (Psittaculidae) is proposed based on combined evidence from morphology and COI mitochondrial DNA. Phylogenetically, the new species is closest to its two known congeners from Western Australia: F. josephi Price, Johnson & Palma, 2008 from Bourke's parrot Neopsephotus bourkii (Gould, 1841) and the scarlet-chested parrot Neophema splendida (Gould, 1841), and F. palmai Guimarães, 1985 from the Australian ringneck parrot Barnardius zonarius (Shaw, 1805). Morphologically it is distinguishable by abdominal chaetotaxy and characters of the male genitalia, and is most similar to F. josephi and F. greeni Guimarães, 1985; the latter has no representative sequence data. Forficuloecus pezopori is the eleventh species of its genus and the only metazoan parasite known from P. flaviventris, which is among Australia's most endangered vertebrates. The new louse is apparently restricted to P. flaviventris and is therefore co-endangered, facing at least the same likelihood of extinction as its host. We recommend ongoing translocation and field monitoring efforts for P. flaviventris include monitoring but not treatment for lice infestations in otherwise healthy individuals, and that the care management plan for captive P. flaviventris considers that F. pezopori is similarly imperilled.

Avian Diabetes Mellitus: A Review.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an uncommon, poorly documented metabolic disorder of birds. Extrapolating knowledge from DM in mammals is challenging because of marked differences in avian physiology and metabolism. A literature review from December 1991 to January 2022 identified 14 publications covering 16 diabetic birds, 63% (10/16) of which belonged to the order Psittaciformes with Ara as the predominant genus. No sex predilection was noted, but males generally presented at a younger age. Commonly reported clinical signs included polyuria 94% (15/16), polydipsia 88% (14/16), weight loss 75% (12/16), lethargy 63% (10/16), and polyphagia 38% (6/16). Diagnosis of DM was based on the presence of clinical signs and persistent hyperglycemia 100% (16/16), often with glucosuria 93% (13/14), response to insulin therapy 80% (8/10), and pancreatic pathology 90% (9/10). Specific treatment for DM was initiated in 14 patients, but blood glucose regulation for 6 months or longer was only achieved in 6 birds. Five of the regulated birds were managed with injectable long-acting insulin and 1 with oral glipizide combined with dietary modifications. However, glipizide yielded poor results in other cases, likely attributable to a lack of functional beta cells. Three diabetic birds progressed to remission. Treatment proved unsuccessful for 7 patients with a mean survival time of 36 days from diagnosis. One patient was lost to follow-up, and 2 were euthanized immediately following diagnosis. Histological examination of the pancreas frequently (90%, 9/10) revealed abnormalities including atrophy, fibrosis, and vacuolization of the endocrine islets with or without lymphoplasmacytic pancreatitis. Comorbidities, including hemosiderosis and infection, were common. This review suggests that birds diagnosed with DM are primarily affected by a type I diabetes as observed in dogs and humans. In contrast to mammalian species, avian DM is often associated with underlying disease and a complete clinical workup is essential to diagnose and address secondary disease conditions prior to initiating long-term insulin therapy.

Histology and immunofluorescent study of the pancreas in lovebird (Agapornis personatus).

Lovebird (Agapornis personatus) is a monotypic species of bird of the lovebird genus in the parrot family Psittaculidae and order Psittaciformes. The present study was designed to investigate the histology and immunohistochemistry of the pancreas in the lovebird. Totally, three adult birds were used. The pancreas was assessed using histological and immunofluorescent staining to detect insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide (PP) and neuropeptide Y (NY). The exocrine pancreas was composed of pyramidal acinar cells with zymogen granules at the apical cytoplasm. The endocrine pancreas was identified as large alpha, small beta and mixed islets of Langerhans. No intercalated duct was observed. Alpha cells with a density of 28.55% were the most numerous cell type, which were populated throughout the large islets, especially at the periphery. The beta cells with a density of 15.78% were accumulated mostly at the periphery of islets. The delta cells exhibited 17.81% intensity. Despite their lower density, the distribution of delta cells was like that of A cells throughout the islets. PP and NY cells were distinguished with densities of 14.69% and 20.63%, respectively. Although the arrangement of acinar cells, ductal systems and endocrine islets reflects patterns observed in various avian species, the absence of intercalated duct, the presence of three types of Langerhans islets as alpha, beta and mixed islets and the high expression of NY in the islets were some unique features observed in the current study. These findings contribute to the broader understanding of avian pancreas histology.

The genus Neopsittaconirmus (Psocodea: Ischnocera: Philopteridae) from parrots of Pakistan, and evaluation of its distribution on captive parrots (Psittaciformes) around the world

The genus Neopsittaconirmus Conci, 1942 is a host-specific genus, found on both wild and captive parrots and love birds (order Psittaciformes). Two species of this genus: N. lybartota (Ansari, 1947) and N. chandabani (Ansari, 1947) have been previously reported from the Punjab province, Pakistan. We recorded N. lybartota from Psittacula eupatria nipalensis (n = 2), Psittacula krameri borealis (n = 13), and captive Psittacula krameri krameri (n = 4) with the mean intensity of 2.0 ± 1, 2.13 ± 0.35 and 2.25 ± 0.47, respectively; the prevalence of louse infestation was 62% in P. krameri borealis and 100% in P. krameri krameri and P. eupatria nipalensis. From this material, we redescribed its morphological variations in taxonomic features. Records on P. eupatria nipalensis and P. krameri krameri represent new host associations for this species of louse. We also present a new record of Neopsittaconirmus vendulae from a captive cockatiel, Nymphicus hollandicua (n = 3) in Pakistan, with mean intensity of 2.6 ± 0.66. Intraspecific variability of this species is described in detail, with special reference to the male and female terminalia, and male genitalia. We aimed to update and extend the fauna of chewing lice infesting birds of Pakistan. Previous records of Neopsittaconirmus on captive parrots around the world are summarized and discussed. Despite long-standing systematic veterinary care, some Neopsittaconirmus have cosmopolitan distribution and they are able to survive and successfully reproduce in captivity with their hosts, and even colonize novel hosts.

Prevalence and diversity of avian malaria parasites in illegally traded white‐winged parakeets in Peruvian Amazonas

AbstractIllegal or poorly regulated wildlife trade may enhance parasite spread worldwide, leading to pathogen outbreaks and the emergence of diseases affecting native wildlife, domestic animals and humans. The order Psittaciformes has the largest proportion of endangered species among all birds worldwide and is one of the most trafficked taxa in the pet trade. However, despite the large number of parrot species commercialized worldwide, the influence of illegally traded wild birds on the introduction of exotic pathogens is still poorly investigated. Here we molecularly examined the prevalence and genetic diversity of haemosporidian parasites in illegally traded white‐winged parakeets (Brotogeris versicolurus), one of the most trafficked parrots in South America. We found that 18.5% of parakeets harboured Plasmodium relictum GRW04, a highly invasive malaria parasite provoking population decline and even extinctions in native avifauna when established outside its natural range. We also showed that malaria infected birds have lower body condition than uninfected parakeets, revealing the negative effects of malaria on their avian hosts. These outcomes highlight the risk of malaria spill over and disease outbreak in illegally traded wildlife. Our results also reveal epidemiological key concepts in disease transmission, such as the role of poorly studied parrot species as natural reservoir hosts of haemosporidians. These findings stress the importance of enforcing health control regulations and trade policies to fight wildlife trafficking effectively.

Morpho-pathogenetic characterization of staphylococci species and strains involved in psittacine diseases

The order Psittaciformes taxonomically includes the families Loriidae (Lori parrots or parakeets), Cacaduidae (crested parrots and nymph parakeets) and Psittacidae (parrots and true parakeets). The ever-increasing desire to obtain specimens with plumage and especially with spectacular chromatics led in many situations to the reproduction through repeated inbreeding and in extremely close degrees of kinship (even the repetition over several generations of mother-son or father-daughter pairings), determining, secondarily, important changes in the metabolism and immune system of the obtained products, characters that were transmitted to the following generations. The maintenance conditions are not always correlated with the needs of the respective species. In many cases, the knowledge about the eco-biology of psittacines raised in captivity is quite poor, leading to an increase in their sensitivity. In recent years, in the clinic of these bird species, we have been dealing with extremely diverse pathologies or metabolic changes that have never been described or even observed in parrots in the wild. Among the difficult pathological problems in terms of diagnosis and therapeutic conduct, there are infectious diseases with bacterial etiology, often confused with a series of diseases with extremely different etiologies. Some of the most common bacterial diseases in recent times are staphylococci, with various evolutions: digestive, respiratory or integumentary. The correct diagnosis, using the current laboratory methods and the morphopathogenetic knowledge of the species and strains involved, allows a rapid therapeutic intervention, with positive results.

Genomic Basis of Adaptive Divergence in Leg Length between Ground- and Tree-Dwelling Species within a Bird Family.

Hind limbs of tetrapods vary greatly in length and the variability can be associated with locomotor adaptation. Although the phenotypic evolution has been well documented, the underlying genetic basis remains poorly understood. We address this issue by integrating comparative genomics and functional prediction with a study system consisting of ground-dwelling, long-legged and tree-dwelling, short-legged species within the avian family Paridae. Genome-wide divergence and phenotypic correlation analyses jointly identified five highly divergent genomic regions that are significantly related with the difference in leg length between these two groups. Gene annotation for these regions detected three genes involved in skeletal development, that is, PTPA, BRINP1, and MIGA2, with the first one being under the strongest selection. Furthermore, four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the coding region of PTPA can well distinguish the two groups with distinct leg length. Among the four SNPs, one is non-synonymous mutation, and according to the prediction for protein structure and function, it can affect the 3D structure of the encoded protein by altering the corresponding amino acid's position. The alleles of PTPA were found in all sequenced species of the orders Palaeognathae and Psittaciformes, which typically take a ground locomotion style. A whole-genome scanning across bird species uncovered that the four SNPs are more likely to be present in resident passerines with increased leg length/wing length ratios (a proxy of leg-dependent locomotion efficiency). Our findings provide insight into the molecular evolution of locomotion performance based on leg morphology in birds.

An approach to the effects of longevity, sexual maturity, and reproduction on telomere length and oxidative stress in different Psittacidae species.

Introduction: Aging is a multifactorial process that includes molecular changes such as telomere shortening. Telomeres shorten progressively with age in vertebrates, and their shortening rate has a significant role in determining the lifespan of a species. However, DNA loss can be enhanced by oxidative stress. The need for novel animal models has recently emerged as a tool to gather more information about the human aging process. Birds live longer than other mammals of the same size, and Psittacidae species are the most persevering of them, due to special key traits. Methods: We aimed to determine telomere length by qPCR, and oxidative stress status using colorimetric and fluorescence methods in different species of the order Psittaciformes with different lifespans. Results: We found that telomeres shorten with age for both long- and short-lived birds (p < 0.001 and p = 0.004, respectively), with long-lived birds presenting longer telomeres than short-lived ones (p = 0.001). In addition, short-lived birds accumulated more oxidative stress products than long-lived birds (p = 0.013), who showed a better antioxidant capacity (p < 0.001). Breeding was found related to telomere shortening in all species (p < 0.001 and p = 0.003 for long- and short-lived birds). Short-lived birds, especially breeding females, increased their oxidative stress products when breeding (p = 0.021), whereas long-lived birds showed greater resistance and even increased their antioxidant capacity (p = 0.002). Conclusion: In conclusion, the relationship between age and telomere length in Psittacidae was verified. The influence of breeding increased cumulative oxidative damage in short-lived species, while long-lived species may counteract this damage.

First Documentation of Exophiala spp. Isolation in Psittaciformes.

Simple SummaryThe microbiomes of birds are not yet widely understood, although they are increasingly being studied. After the successful medical management of a suspected traumatic lesion in the left choana of a military macaw (Ara militar), in which Exophiala spp. was consistently reported, another 24 psittaciform birds from a Portuguese zoological collection were sampled to study the role of Exophiala spp. as part of the avian microbioma. Swab samples were collected from the trachea and/or choanae and proceeded for fungal isolation, in which fungal species were identified through their macroscopic and microscopic morphology. Exophiala spp. was identified in 60% of the birds sampled and no statistical association was found between the clinical record of the birds and the fungal isolation. This is the first report of isolation of Exophiala spp. in the upper airways of avian species.Several fungi species are reported to act as opportunistic agents of infection in avian species. After the isolation of Exophiala spp., a dematiaceous fungal pathogen associated with a mucosal lesion in a military macaw (Ara militar), samples were collected from another 24 birds of the order Psittaciformes to study the possibility of Exophiala spp. being part of the commensal microbiota of these animals or its possible association with other clinical conditions. Swab samples were collected from the trachea and/or choanae of the birds and inoculated in Sabouraud chloramphenicol agar for fungal isolation. After incubation, fungal species were identified through their macroscopic and microscopic morphology. The presence of Exophiala spp. was identified in 15 of the 25 birds sampled and no statistical association was found between the clinical record of the birds and the fungal isolation. Our results suggest that Exophiala spp. can colonize the upper respiratory airways of psittaciform birds and has a low pathogenic potential in these animals. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report of Exophiala spp. isolation from samples of the upper respiratory tract of Psittaciformes.

Body size and sexual selection shaped the evolution of parrot calls.

Morphology, habitat and various selective pressures (e.g. social and sexual selection) can influence the evolution of acoustic signals, but the relative importance of their effects is not well understood. The order Psittaciformes (parrots, sensu lato) is a large clade of very vocal and often gregarious species for which large-scale comparative studies of vocalizations are lacking. We measured acoustic traits (duration, sound frequency, frequency bandwidth and sound entropy) of the predominant call type for >200 parrot species to test: (1) for associations with body size; (2) the acoustic adaptation hypothesis (AAH) (predicting differences between forest and open-habitat species); (3) the social complexity hypothesis (predicting more complex calls in gregarious species) and (4) influences of sexual selection (predicting correlated evolution with colour ornamentation). Larger species had on average longer calls, lower sound frequency and wider frequency bandwidth. These associations with body size are all predicted by physical principles of sound production. We found no evidence for the acoustic adaptation and social complexity hypotheses, but perhaps social complexity is associated with vocal traits not studied here, such as call repertoire sizes. More sexually dichromatic species had on average simpler calls (shorter, with lower entropy and narrower frequency bandwidth) indicating an influence of sexual selection, namely an evolutionary negative correlation between colour ornamentation and elaborate acoustic signals, as predicted by the transference hypothesis. Our study is the first large-scale attempt at understanding acoustic diversity across the Psittaciformes, and indicates that body size and sexual selection influenced the evolution of species differences in vocal signals.

Generalized aptheria and automutilization of members in budgegarigar (Melopsittacus undulatus SHAW, 1805) presenting circovirosis in the Northeast of Brazil

The budgegarigar (Melosittacus undulatus Shaw, 1805) is a bird of the order Psittaciformes and family Psittaculidae. This species is considered the third most popular pet in the world and is frequently seen in veterinary clinics. Among the diseases that can affect these animals, the Psittacidae beak and feather disease (PBFD), or circovirosis, is an infectious disease commonly reported in some regions. This paper aims to describe the case of a budgegarigar presenting generalized aptheria and self-mutilation of limbs due to PBFD and feather-picking disorder in Northeastern Brazil. A budgegarigar was admitted to the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal Rural University of the Semiarid (HOVET-UFERSA) with generalized aptheria. Subsequently, feces were collected and a molecular polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis for PsCV Circovirus was requested. The result was positive, and upon the animal's return to the clinic, it presented right carpometacarpal and tarsometatarsal self-mutilated. Considering that reports of these disorders for psittacidae are scarce in the Northeast, we report the first occurrence of circovirosis and consequent feather-pulling disorder with clinical manifestation of generalized aptheria and self-mutilation of limbs in a budgegarigar in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, which represents a risk for the conservation of wild Psittacidae in this region.

Identificación de Staphylococcus aureus y determinación de su resistencia a antimicrobianos en aves psitácidas en cautiverio y en sus cuidadores (Venezuela)

The order Psittaciformes includes parakeets, parrots, cockatoos and macaws. Its microbiota includes Staphylococcus aureus, Gram-positive coconut with virulence factors that, in the presence of predisposing factors, favor tissue colonization, resist the host's immune defenses and cause pathologies such as skin and soft tissues. In this investigation, Staphylococcus aureus was identified and its resistance to antimicrobials was determined in parrots in captivity and in their keepers in Venezuela. Cloacal samples and faeces of Psittaciformes birds were collected, as well as nasopharyngeal swabs from their keepers. The samples were cultivated for isolation and subsequent bacterial identification. For the determination of the antimicrobial susceptibility, the Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method was applied. 57.8% (26/45) of the birds and 60% (3/5) of the keepers were isolated for Staphylococcus aureus. Susceptibility tests reported 2.2% Methicillin Resistant S. aureus in birds and 20% in keepers. The highest percentage of resistance was towards beta-lactam antibiotics and a higher multi-resistance was found in keepers than in birds. This phenomenon represents a risk for populations of birds and fauna in captivity, where animals in captivity can act as a reservoir for diseases.

New Bird Sexing Strategy Developed in the Order Psittaciformes Involves Multiple Markers to Avoid Sex Misidentification: Debunked Myth of the Universal DNA Marker.

Sexing of birds is indispensable for scientific, breeding and conservation programs but is difficult in many species and is particularly problematic in the case of nestlings showing no sexual dimorphism. Most useful and efficient methods of sex determination are based on unique features of the Z and W sex chromosomes detected via PCR to distinguish males (ZZ) and females (ZW). During the last twenty-five years researchers searched for the universal marker capable of sexing a maximally wide spectrum of species in a single PCR assay. We screened the phylogenetically representative set of 135 Psittaciformes species including 59 species sexed for the first time. Two known (P2P8, CHD1iA) PCR markers and four additional W/Z polymorphisms (CHD1iE, CHD1i16, CHD1i9 and NIPBLi16) located within the Chromo Helicase DNA binding CHD1 or the Nipped-B homolog NIPBL genes were applied. We present the electrophoretic patterns obtained for the PCR products of the analyzed markers including most typical and atypical patterns allowing sex determination, as well as those obtained when the given marker failed in sexing. Technical aspects of molecular sex determination are discussed: the optimization of amplification conditions, direct PCR and potential misinterpretations. A truly universal marker has not been found, and therefore, we propose a sexing strategy based on multiple CHD1i16, NIPBLi16, CHD1i9 and CHD1iE markers. This new strategy confirms the sex of a given bird with at least two markers detecting independent Z/W polymorphisms, reduces the number of necessary PCR reactions and minimizes the risk of sex misidentification.

A Literature Synthesis of Actions to Tackle Illegal Parrot Trade

The order Psittaciformes is one of the most prevalent groups in the illegal wildlife trade. Efforts to understand this threat have focused on describing the elements of the trade itself: actors, extraction rates, and routes. However, the development of policy-oriented interventions also requires an understanding of how research aims and actions are distributed across the trade chain, regions, and species. We used an action-based approach to review documents published on illegal Psittaciformes trade at a global scale to analyze patterns in research aims and actions. Research increased exponentially in recent decades, recording 165 species from 46 genera, with an over representation of American and Australasian genera. Most of the research provided basic knowledge for the intermediary side of the trade chain. Aims such as the identification of network actors, zoonosis control, and aiding physical detection had numerous but scarcely cited documents (low growth rate), while behavior change had the highest growth rate. The Americas had the highest diversity of research aims, contributing with basic knowledge, implementation, and monitoring across the whole trade chain. Better understanding of the supply side dynamics in local markets, actor typology, and actor interactions are needed. Protecting areas, livelihood incentives, and legal substitutes are actions under-explored in parrots, while behavior change is emerging.

Why mummified tropical parrots are buried in one of the world’s driest deserts

Why mummified tropical parrots are buried in one of the world’s driest deserts