Species Of Parkia Research Articles

Evaluation of extracts from Sida acuta, Phyllanthus amarus, Parkia biglobosa and their herbal ointment for therapeutic and biological activities

Herbal extracts are a well-known source of therapeutically important bioactive chemicals since they are widely available, relatively inexpensive, and have fewer adverse effects. The three plants' leaves have been used to treat a variety of illnesses in Ghana, including skin conditions and wound infections. Their effectiveness as an ointment in treating the aforementioned illnesses has not yet been shown, though.The extracts were made into an ointment with polyethylene glycol (PEG), and both the ointment and the raw extracts were examined for in vitro antibacterial activity. The three (3) chosen bacterial isolates were subjected to potential activities of the plant extracts from different extractants.The minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for the plant extracts were both low. The herbal ointment made with Sida acuta extract from both extractants showed significantly different activity (P < 0.05), against the test pathogens when compared to the reference medication (Madecassol®). However, the activities of formulated herbal ointment from both P. amarus and P. biglobosa extracts were comparable at higher concentrations to the standard drug used. Notably, both plant extracts and extract-PEG manufactured ointments exhibit significant in vitro efficacy against the disease-causing bacterial species.The current study is the first in-depth account of Parkia species with regard to an examination of herbal ointments made from leaves extract obtained utilizing solvents such as water and ethanol. Our research findings have important implications for the pharmaceutical industry in terms of providing a suitable, workable, and alternative supply of bioactive compounds and anti-infective agents.

Lectotypification of names in Parkia R.Br. (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae, mimosoid clade) for Africa and Madagascar

SummaryTen specific names plus those of three varieties, which refer to the four currently recognised species of Parkia in Africa and Madagascar (P. bicolor A.Chev., P. biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br. ex G.Don, P. filicoidea Welw. ex Oliv., P. madagascariensis R.Vig.), are listed. Their types are enumerated with lectotypes indicated where necessary and in a few cases, a second-step lectotypification is made. Two further names are invalid and illegitimate respectively. Two tables summarise the synonymy of these names according to major flora treatments and revisions of the genus. Connections between the botanist Robert Brown, who established the genus Parkia, and the explorer Mungo Park, after whom Brown named it, are described briefly.

Fossil Parkia R.Br. (Fabaceae) pollen from the Miocene of western Amazonia

The legume genus Parkia R.Br. has a pantropical distribution and centre of diversity in the Amazon. The molecular phylogeny of the group indicates a Neotropical origin in the Amazon biome during the Miocene, and habitat reconstruction points to terra firme (unflooded) forests. We examined recently described fossil pollen from the Miocene Solimões Formation in western Brazilian Amazonia attributed to this genus. Aiming to establish an infra-generic affinity, comparisons were performed between fossil pollen of Parkiidites marileae Leite and pollen from extant Parkia species using morphological characters and multivariate analyses. Parkiidites marileae is characterised by large and globose polyads, the polyads are composed of 16 monads, and the monads have a verrucate ornamentation. Analyses suggest two well-defined groups, a non-NLR (nearest living relative) group composed of P. decussata, P. gigantocarpa, P. velutina, P. panurensis, P. platycephala, P. pendula, P. multijuga, and P. ulei; and a NLR group composed of P. cachimboensis, P. discolor, P. igneiflora, P. lutea, and P. nitida. All species of the NLR group belong to the same clade, with a molecular age estimated at ∼12.8 million years, which is virtually the same age as interpreted for the first occurrence of P. marileae in the Solimões Formation. The late Middle to Late Miocene in western Amazonia was a time of gradual change from vast wetlands to more river-dominated landscapes that favoured unflooded forests where Parkia diversified and is distributed today.

Is chiropterophily an evolutionary dead end? A phylogenetic test in the pantropical genus Parkia (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae, mimosoid clade)

Background and aims – Pollination systems often reflect adaptations to specific groups of pollinators, and these morphological specialisations have been important in the diversification of the angiosperms. Here, we study the evolution of the capitulum and pollination system in the pantropical genus Parkia, which comprises 35 species of trees distributed largely in the forests of South and Central America, Africa, Madagascar, and the Indo-Pacific. The flowers are grouped into capitula that are composed of one, two, or three distinct morphological types, and are principally pollinated either by insects or by bats. Material and methods – Using BEAST, we estimated the ages of nodes in a phylogeny based on four chloroplast regions (matK, trnL, psbA-trnH, and rps16-trnQ) and the nuclear region ITS/18S/26S. This analysis also enabled us to reconstruct the ancestral state of the capitulum and hence infer the ancestral pollination system. Euclidean distance-based cluster analysis was performed to determine which characters are consistently related to a specific pollination system.Key results – Our results indicate that the ancestral capitulum in the genus had three types of flowers and a morphology associated with bat-pollination in both the Paleotropics and Neotropics. In one derived Neotropical clade, the number of floral types in each capitulum was reduced to two (capitulum also bat-pollinated) or one (insect-pollinated). Thus, entomophily, as seen in some Neotropical species of Parkia, has been derived from a bat-pollinated ancestor. Cluster analysis showed that the floral characters were mostly consistent with pollination systems.Conclusion – Chiropterophily is not an evolutionary dead end in Parkia because during the evolutionary history of the genus there has been at least one transition to entomophily. Parkia provides a unique example of evolutionary transitions from chiropterophily to entomophily in a pantropical genus of trees.

Ethnic uses of Parkia timoriana (Fabaceae) and their significance to the Lotha tribes of Nagaland, North east India

This work highlights the ethnic uses of Parkia timoriana and their significance for livelihoods, ecological and human health. The study was conducted through interviews and surveys in three villages of Wokha district, Nagaland, North-east India and revealed that Parkia is one of the most widely used, ethno-botanically important multipurpose tree species for the people of this region. The pods from the trees are one of the costliest vegetable in the area. Besides economic importance, its nutritional and medicinal value is highly indispensable. In addition, it also binds and prevents soil erosion from heavy rainfall through its wide crown in shifting cultivation fallows. We find that villagers are well aware of the role of Parkia from a socio-economic point of view and are establishing plantations of this species; however, their perception regarding ecological benefits is less well developed. We recommended to continue promotion of Parkia species in this region to maximize the socio-economic and ecological benefits in the future, but note the recent reports on die-back diseases that need attention for timely management interventions.

Genus Parkia: Phytochemical, Medicinal Uses, and Pharmacological Properties.

The genus Parkia (Fabaceae, Subfamily, Mimosoideae) comprises about 34 species of mostly evergreen trees widely distributed across neotropics, Asia, and Africa. This review aims to provide an overview of the current status of the species from the genus Parkia in terms of its relationship between its phytochemistry and medical uses. Comprehensive information on Parkia species was retrieved from electronic databases, which were Web of Science, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Google Scholar. This review identified nine species from genus Parkia with properties of medicinal use. They are used traditionally to treat several ailments, such as diabetes, diarrhea, wounds, hypertension, cough, chronic piles, conjunctivitis, and measles. The most common species studied are P. biglobosa, P. speciosa, P. javanica, P. bicolor, P. biglandulosa, P. filicoidea, and P. clappertoniana. A considerable number of secondary metabolites, such as terpenoids, phenolic acids, flavonoids (aglycone and glycosides), and numerous volatile compounds have been identified in this genus, which are responsible for their diverse pharmacological activities. Their extracts, pure compounds and seed lectins have been reported for their anticancer, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antiulcer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimalarial, hepatoprotective, and antidiarrheal activities. The information gathered in this review might be of help for future studies in terms of the current knowledge on the link between the phytochemical components and medicinal uses. This could facilitate more discoveries on its potentials particularly in the pharmacological characteristics and potential to be developed into modern medicines.

Morphology of the unusual polyad in Amazonian Parkia legume trees

An unusual polyad occurs in three Parkia species, named cavitate polyad. It has an internal central space full of lipoprotein substances, contacting all pollen grains, probably aiding pollen germination. This study details the unusual morphology of polyads of three species of Parkia (P. multijuga Benth., P. ulei (Harms) Kuhlm., and P. pendula (Willd.) Benth. ex Walp.) and suggests functions for polyad adaptive traits that are linked to the reproductive success of the species. Polyads within the anthers of the three Parkia species were analysed by surface (scanning electron microscopy) and anatomical (light microscopy) studies. Ultrastructure and development studies were carried out for P. pendula polyads. Polyads are globose and cavitated, i.e., exhibit an internal cavity that varies in size, being more conspicuous in P. ulei and P. pendula. Other differences among species are related to the polyad size, exine ornamentation and the type of substances stored in the pollen grain. The polyad internal cavity is filled with an exudate that may be related to the pollen germination through the internal pores and/or translocation of substances from the anther loculus to the inside or vice versa. This inference is supported by the following observations: the spaces between the pollen grains in a polyad are also filled with the exudate, and the exudate inside the polyad is similar to the anther locular fluid. The morphology and substances stored within the pollen grains of Parkia polyads seem to be more related to polyad functionality and physiology than to the selective pressures exerted by different pollinators on the group.

Characterization of nuclear microsatellite loci in the Neotropical tree Parkia panurensis (Fabaceae)

We present here a set of nine polymorphic nuclear microsatellite loci, identified for the first time within the neotropical legume tree species Parkia panurensis Benth. ex H. C. Hopkins, which is widespread in western and central Amazonia. To characterize these loci, 33 Parkia panurensis adult trees were analyzed. The number of alleles ranged from eight to 32, with an average of 14.4 alleles per locus. Mean expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.74 to 0.955. All nine loci could also be verified in six other Parkia species and polymorphic fragments amplified. The new marker set can be used for future studies of genetic diversity and differentiation, as well as estimation of gene flow and parentage analyses in various Parkia species.

Parkia nana (Leguminosae, Mimosoideae), a New Species from the Sub-Andean Sandstone Cordilleras of Peru

Abstract Parkia nana D. A. Neill (Leguminosae, Mimosoideae) from sandstone areas near the Rio Maranon area in northeastern Peru is described and illustrated. Photographic evidence also indicates presence of this species on sandstone substrate in the Cordillera Azul in east-central Peru. Compared to other species of Parkia R. Brown, which commonly attain 30–40 m in height, P. nana has a dwarf growth form, found as a pachycaul treelet attaining reproductive maturity at 3–4 m in height. The new species is placed in the pantropical section Parkia R. Brown and is similar to P. nitida Miquel and P. balslevii H. C. Hopkins, with which it shares the opposite to subopposite leaves, the biglobose capitula, and indehiscent strap-shaped pods, but differs from both in its short stature, erect compound inflorescence, and erect, velutinous fruits.

The pollination ecology of two species of Parkia (Mimosaceae) in southern Thailand

Abstract:Although the floral traits ofParkiaconform to the bat-pollination syndrome, many visitors other than bats have been observed at their flowers. Some chiropterophilous plants are also pollinated by other animals; the syndrome is therefore best regarded as a hypothesis for which field observations and pollination experiments are required. The present study aimed, for the first time, to determine the breeding system of the economically important canopy trees,Parkia speciosaandP. timoriana, and to identify their pollinators. Pollination experiments carried out in Trang and Songkhla Provinces, in 28 trees ofP. speciosaand fourP. timorianaindicated that they are self incompatible. Open pollination resulted in the highest fruit set (average 60–67% of inflorescences per tree) although this was not significantly different from hand-crossed pollination (48–60%). Insect pollination resulted in fruit set in only 12% ofP. speciosainflorescences. Fruit bats, mainlyEonycteris spelaea, visit flowering plants continuously from dusk till after midnight. Nocturnal and diurnal insects (moths and stingless bees respectively) visit capitula, mostly at the nectar zone. Nectarivorous bats are the most effective pollinator forP. speciosaandP. timoriana. The fact that populations ofE. spelaeaappear to be declining throughout their distribution is therefore a matter of increasing concern.

Floral scent and nectar production in Parkia biglobosa Jacq. (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae)

Composition and variation in scent chemistry among individuals and populations, and nocturnal variation in scent composition and nectar production were studied in the African bat-pollinated species Parkia biglobosa. Floral scent was sampled using headspace techniques and chemical composition determined by GC-MS. Nectar production and sugar concentration were measured. The floral scent of P. biglobosa contained mainly benzenoids and isoprenoids. The total amount of volatiles produced and the chemical composition varied within and among the populations studied, as did nectar production. A nocturnal variation in the production of individual compounds and in nectar production was also found, but the sugar concentration of the nectar was fairly constant. Most of the floral scent compounds in P. biglobosa are common in the floral scent of plants pollinated by various groups of animals. The temporal scent and nectar production in P. biglobosa showed highest production early during anthesis and then declined following bat visitation. Published descriptions of floral scents in other species of Parkia imply the presence of sulphur compounds, as has been reported in several bat-pollinated species in the Neotropics. However, Parkia biglobosa did not contain any sulphur compounds, which shows that megabats, in this case, do not use sulphur compounds as foraging cues, as has been suggested for microbats in the New World.

Floral scent and nectar production in Parkia biglobosa Jacq. (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae)

Composition and variation in scent chemistry among individuals and populations, and nocturnal variation in scent composition and nectar production were studied in the African bat-pollinated species Parkia biglobosa. Floral scent was sampled using headspace techniques and chemical composition determined by GC-MS. Nectar production and sugar concentration were measured. The floral scent of P. biglobosa contained mainly benzenoids and isoprenoids. The total amount of volatiles produced and the chemical composition varied within and among the populations studied, as did nectar production. A nocturnal variation in the production of individual compounds and in nectar production was also found, but the sugar concentration of the nectar was fairly constant. Most of the floral scent compounds in P. biglobosa are common in the floral scent of plants pollinated by various groups of animals. The temporal scent and nectar production in P. biglobosa showed highest production early during anthesis and then declined following bat visitation. Published descriptions of floral scents in other species of Parkia imply the presence of sulphur compounds, as has been reported in several bat-pollinated species in the Neotropics. However, Parkia biglobosa did not contain any sulphur compounds, which shows that megabats, in this case, do not use sulphur compounds as foraging cues, as has been suggested for microbats in the New World.

Nocturnal pollination of Parkia velutina by Megalopta bees in Amazonia and its possible significance in the evolution of chiropterophily

Canopy observations of the rain forest tree Parkia velutina (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae) in Amazonian Brazil indicate that it is pollinated by night-flying bees. The small red flowers are organized into spherical heads; they open in the late afternoon and attract Megalopta bees (Halictidae: Augochlorini) which forage for pollen after dark. In contrast to the numerous bat-pollinated species of Parkia, no nectar was detected. Nocturnal melittophily is proposed as a possible intermediate stage in the evolution of chiropterophily from diurnal entomophily in Parkia.

Parkia barnebyana (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae), a New Species from Venezuelan Guyana

Summary. A distinctive new species of Parkia, with stiff white hairs on the leaflets, is described from Cucurital de Caname, Amazonas, Venezuela. It has velutinous pods and dense red-brown indumentum on the stems and leaf rachises. Since only the fruits and leaves have been collected, the sectional placement of P barnebyana is uncertain, though it appears most closely allied to section Sphaeroparkia.

A Cladistic Analysis of Parkia (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae)

A cladistic analysis of the tropical mimosoid genus Parkia was undertaken to examine relationships among the 31 species and to test the monophyly of the three recognized sections. The implications of the cladogram to the evolution of bat-pollination and biogeography were also explored. The analysis, based on 52 morphological characters, resulted in 408 most parsimonious trees. A consensus tree supports the monophyly of sections Parkia and Platyparkia, but section Sphaeroparkia is paraphyletic. The latter section is distinguished by a capitulum of all fertile flowers, a plesiomorphic attribute in this analysis. Characters supporting the monophyly of section Platyparkia include an inflorescence with distal nectar flowers having exserted styles, and fruits with seeds in two rows. Section Parkia is characterized by having sterile basal flowers with nectar flowers just above them, and calyx lobes included in bud. Bat-pollination was mapped onto one of the most parsimonious cladograms to examine the evolution of pollination syndromes within the genus. Our phylogeny is consistent with a single origin of bat-pollination and indicates that entomophilous species of Parkia are basal rather than secondarily derived. Sections Platyparkia and Parkia are separate lineages within the bat-pollinated clade and have independently developed capitulum types adapted to chiropterophily. Characters that are associated with chiropterophily include specialized nectar-producing flowers and basifixed anthers. Several characters, including presence of a staminodial fringe, a nectar ring, and pollen with verrucate sculpturing on the exine, probably represent increasing specialization for bat-pollination. The cladogram supports a South American origin for Parkia but is not consistent with a Gondwanan vicariance event as is usually hypothesized to explain its amphi-Atlantic distribution.

Combined cryo- and thin sectioning (TEM) in the elucidation of mimosoid tetrad/polyad ultrastructure

Cryosections (freeze-sections) of tetrads/polyads and their subsequent examination in the SEM complement traditional methods (LM, SEM, and TEM) by providing both a dynamic three-dimensional overview of polyad morphology and clarifying aperture morphology, internal wall characters and tetrad/polyad cohesion mechanisms. Cryosections of Dinizia tetrads reveal that cohesion is maintained through adhesion/fusion of the apices of clavate elements in localized regions of the subproximal and proximal walls — a feature not discernible using traditional SEM preparations. Cryosections of the globose 20-grained polyads of Parkia species reveal small central grains and triradiate-shaped proximal apertures — features unobservable or misinterpreted using traditional LM, SEM and TEM methods. In Anadenathera polyads, cryosections have clarified the nature and distribution of small gaps present in the lateral and proximal walls of individual grains.

ULTRASTRUCTURE OF PARKIA POLYADS (MIMOSOIDEAE: LEGUMINOSAE)

Pollen of 16 species of Parkia (ca. 30 spp.) was examined in the light, scanning and transmission electron microscopes (LM, SEM and TEM). Pollen is shed as large (61‐236 μm), globose, 16–32‐grained polyads that remain united following acetolysis. Thin sections reveal that polyad cohesion is maintained through fusion and/or adhesion and/or appression of adjacent ektexines in lateral and/or proximal and/or distal regions. In lateral and proximal regions the ektexine is often embedded in a dense granular endexinous matrix. Individual grains of the polyad are clearly outlined in most species but are completely obscured in several New World species. Sculpturing varies both in pattern and type of element. Nonuniformly sculptured polyads, in which the sculpturing of individual grains differs between the peripheral and central portions of the distal face, occur only among Old World species. Uniformly sculptured polyads occur among both New and Old World taxa. Two main sculpturing types are present among Parkia species: verrucate and tectate‐perforate, the latter particularly well developed in the reticulate polyads of the neotropical P. ulei and P. multijuga p.p. Ultrastructurally, all Parkia polyads exhibit ektexine and endexine continuous around the individual grain. Distal ektexine is prominent and clearly stratified, usually exhibiting a thick, perforate tectum, columellate interstitium, and a thin, locally discontinuous foot layer. Lateral and proximal ektexine is significantly thinner and less structured. Individual grains within the polyad possess three to four peripheral‐distal apertures usually at the points of contact between adjacent grains. Proximal and central grain apertures occur in most, but not all, species. Polyad characters suggest a particularly close relationship among the New World species P. decussata, P. discolor, P. gigantocarpa, P. igneiflora, and P. nitida. Parkia ulei, though sculpturally closest to P. multijuga p.p., is ultrastructurally most similar to the African P. biglobosa. The large tectate‐perforate‐fossulate polyads of P. pendula and P. platyparkia are unique in the New World.

Ultrastructure of Parkia Polyads (Mimosoideae: Leguminosae)

Pollen of 16 species of Parkia (ca. 30 spp.) was examined in the light, scanning and transmission electron microscopes (LM, SEM and TEM). Pollen is shed as large (61-236 μm), globose, 16–32-grained polyads that remain united following acetolysis. Thin sections reveal that polyad cohesion is maintained through fusion and/or adhesion and/or appression of adjacent ektexines in lateral and/or proximal and/or distal regions. In lateral and proximal regions the ektexine is often embedded in a dense granular endexinous matrix. Individual grains of the polyad are clearly outlined in most species but are completely obscured in several New World species. Sculpturing varies both in pattern and type of element. Nonuniformly sculptured polyads, in which the sculpturing of individual grains differs between the peripheral and central portions of the distal face, occur only among Old World species. Uniformly sculptured polyads occur among both New and Old World taxa. Two main sculpturing types are present among Parkia species: verrucate and tectate-perforate, the latter particularly well developed in the reticulate polyads of the neotropical P. ulei and P. multijuga p.p. Ultrastructurally, all Parkia polyads exhibit ektexine and endexine continuous around the individual grain. Distal ektexine is prominent and clearly stratified, usually exhibiting a thick, perforate tectum, columellate interstitium, and a thin, locally discontinuous foot layer. Lateral and proximal ektexine is significantly thinner and less structured. Individual grains within the polyad possess three to four peripheral-distal apertures usually at the points of contact between adjacent grains. Proximal and central grain apertures occur in most, but not all, species. Polyad characters suggest a particularly close relationship among the New World species P. decussata, P. discolor, P. gigantocarpa, P. igneiflora, and P. nitida. Parkia ulei, though sculpturally closest to P. multijuga p.p., is ultrastructurally most similar to the African P. biglobosa. The large tectate-perforate-fossulate polyads of P. pendula and P. platyparkia are unique in the New World.

Gum polysaccharides from three Parkia species

Nigerian gum exudates from Parkia bicolor and P. biglobosa, and gum from the seed pods of P. pendula growing in Costa Rica have been analysed. The two gum exudates are proteinaceous and have closely similar physicochemical properties and compositions, with galactose, arabinose, glucuronic acid and 4- O-methylglucuronic acid as their constituent sugars; rhamnose is absent, and they are dextrorotatory. The gum from the seed pods of P. pendula contains the same constituent sugars in different proportions, and is laevorotatory. These data may be of interest in the continuing studies of plant-animal interactions and mechanisms of seed dispersal associated with the genus Parkia.

Floral Biology and Pollination Ecology of the Neotropical Species of Parkia

(1) The floral biology and pollination ecology of eleven species of the pantropical genus Parkia (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae) were studied in Amazonian Brazil. Most are large forest trees. (2) The unit of pollination is a ball-like capitulum composed of many small flowers. Specialized flower types are arranged in different ways in the three taxonomic sections of the genus and this has important implications for pollination. (3) Nine species in two sections are bat-pollinated. Their floral adaptations and the mechanism of pollen transfer are similar although there are many differences in details. Individual capitula open for one night, secrete copious nectar, have distinctive smells, are bright red, or yellow, or both, and are held beyond the foliage or rarely within the crown. (4) Andromonoecy occurs in most species; several have a proportion of their capitula with all the fertile flowers functionally male, probably indicating a mechanical constraint on fruit production. Some species appear to be protandrous. (5) Eight species of bats from four subfamilies of the Phyllostomidae were caught at flowering trees. The most important pollinator is Phyllostomus discolor. Bats acting as pollinators land briefly on capitula to take pollen and nectar. In some species, a landing platform is provided by the basal fringe of elongated staminodial filaments. Some small bats take nectar on the wing without contacting the fertile flowers and thus act as nectar thieves, (6) Sympatric chiropterophilous species reduce competition for pollinators primarily by phenological separation. Different flowering strategies affect the range of bat species attracted. Vision is apparently important in the location of open capitula. (7) Non-flying mammals, hummingbirds, bees, wasps, moths, and other insects take nectar or pollen or both but none is likely to be important in the pollination of the chiropterophilous species. (8) Comparison with the pollination of Parkia by pteropodid bats in the palaeotropics emphasizes the similarities in many features. The principal difference is in the landing position of the bat. (9) One taxonomic section, whose capitula lack specialized nectar-secreting flowers, is wholly or partly entomophilous, and visited especially by trigonid bees.