Park Authority Research Articles

Predicting habitat suitability of the critically endangered Be'er Sheva fringe-fingered lizard.

Anthropogenic changes, such as land use, are the main drivers causing climate change and biodiversity loss, with hundreds of thousands of species lacking sufficient habitats for their populations to persist and likely to go extinct within decades. Endemic species are more susceptible to habitat changes and are at the forefront of the biodiversity crisis. We used species distribution models to generate a relative habitat suitability map and identified the habitat requirements of the critically endangered and endemic Be'er Sheva fringe-fingered lizard (Acanthodactylus beershebensis). The model showed that the species' suitable habitats are associated with arid loess plains characterized by scattered, low vegetation cover, primarilyon north-facing aspects, suggesting that these species-specific habitat requirements limit its distribution. The size of the potentially suitable area within the species' historical range is 1350.73 km2. However, anthropogenic changes decreased the remaining suitable habitat to 995.04 km2. Most of this area is unprotected and at risk of further adverse anthropogenic effects. Only 91.72 km2 of this area is protected by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority, and 587.11 km2 may be considered indirectly protected because it is within military firing zones. Our study is the first attempt to map the remaining suitable habitat of A. beershebensis based on the results of a species distribution model. The results of this model can assist in prioritizing the protection of areas needed for the conservation of this critically endangered and endemic lizard species.

Incorporation of human-wildlife interactions in ecosystem-based management to enhance conservation of endangered guitarfish.

Growing human use of the marine environment increases the proximity of humans to marine wildlife and thus likely increases human-wildlife interactions. Such interactions influence perceptions of nature and promote or undermine conservation. Despite their importance, human-wildlife interactions are rarely considered in ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP). Ideally, these interactions should be identified and considered in ecosystem-based management (EBM), which is often purported to be the basis for MSP. We used Marxan software and data from a citizen science project documenting location, species, age, sex, and activity type to identify regions along Israel's coast with a high probability of encounters between people and 2 species of guitarfish. We considered the geographic distribution of these encounters and the various activities undertaken by the reporting observers. We ran 4 scenarios in Marxan. Two had conservation goals of 30% and 50% guitarfish habitat protection. In the third and fourth scenarios, we added a 50% conservation goal of human leisure activities to each guitarfish conservation goal. We also conducted a gap analysis between our guitarfish conservation goals and the Israel Nature and Parks Authority's master plan for marine protected areas. We found the park authority was close to meeting the 30% goal but was far from meeting the conservation goal of 50% of guitarfish habitat conservation. Different human uses were more likely to interact with different life stages of guitarfish, and different recreational activities occurred in different areas. Identifying areas of specific human use showed which activities should be addressed in conservation management decisions. Our addition of certain recreational uses to the model of habitat conservation showed how enhancing human dimensions in conservation planning can lead to more holistic ecosystem-based conservation necessary for effective marine planning.

Pro-Environmental Behavior of Visitors to National Parks in India: Role of Recreation Involvement and Environmental Activism

This study investigates the impact of recreational involvement and environmental activism in forming pro-environmental behavior in tourists visiting national parks. The objective is to understand how tourists spend time with nature and their level of environmental contribution to their willingness to adopt pro-environmental behavior within the National Park. In addition, it aims to examine the mediating role of environmental satisfaction between tourists’ pro-environment behavior and their place attachment. Based on the theory of Place Attachment, which asserts that humans form feelings of association with specific locations, the authors intend to understand how tourist attachment to the national park affects their attitudes and actions related to the environment. Visiting a national park is a recreational involvement for tourists, allowing them to sense responsibility toward the environment. In addition, environmental activism is featured as an individual involvement to protect the environment. Three hundred and fourteen national park visitors in India participated in the current study. WarpPLS (7.0), a variance-based structural equation modeling (SEM), was used to test the research model. By revealing the factors impacting pro-environmental behavior in a national park in India, findings provide an understanding to the national parks authorities in designing interventions and education programs that promote recreation involvement and environmental activism to foster sustainable tourist behavior toward conservation and preservation of national parks in India.

ADAT NATIONAL PARK AS LEGAL POLITICS OF LIVING SPACE OF ANAK DALAM TRIBE

The Anak Dalam Tribe in Bukit Dua Belas National Park faces significant challenges due to conflicting paradigms between state control over national parks and customary land rights which sacrifice the interest of Anak Dalam Tribe. This study underscores the urgent need for a shift in the conservation legal paradigm to safeguard the tribe's living space. Employing a non-doctrinal research method, it examines law as a social reality within the tribe's habitat. The findings advocate for a new conservation model termed "Adat National Park." This model integrates traditional, environmentally friendly practices in collaboration with the National Park Authority. Such an approach aims to harmonize state conservation efforts with indigenous land rights, ensuring the tribe's active participation in management and the preservation of their cultural and ecological heritage. By adopting this model, it is possible to create a balanced and sustainable conservation strategy that respects both state interests and the rights as well as traditions of the Anak Dalam Tribe.

Context‐related mechanisms of policy sustainability: Governance reform of the protected areas in Lombardy

AbstractThe management of protected areas has been recognised as a particularly complex policy field, with many interacting actors and frequent conflicts. How policies survive potential or actual conflict is a matter of policy sustainability; policy manipulation can modify the roles and perceptions of policy actors to achieve outcomes closer to the desired ones—at least, desired by the enacting coalitions. The article investigates the governance reform of protected areas in Lombardy, Italy, focusing on the dynamics of policy sustainability amidst conflict and opposition. It examines how the Lombardy Region's 2016 reform aimed to consolidate the management of protected areas under the umbrella of regional park authorities. Despite the reform's ultimate goals appeared unquestioned, it encountered significant resistance from local administrations. The analysis focused on the context features (pre‐existence of local cooperation agreements, and salience of the protected area), and mechanisms (reputation, and loss aversion) in place at local level. Their combination appears able to explain the varied outcomes of the reform, ranging from failure to partial success.

Economic Evaluation of Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens in Zimbabwe Using an Individual Travel Cost Approach

Economists face an environmental goods and services valuation dilemma as natural resources are considered to be common pool resources with no markets. If markets exist they are mostly imperfect which results in undervaluation or overvaluation of natural resources. This study estimated the imputed recreational use value of Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens in Zimbabwe from 2015‑2017 using the Individual Travel Cost Method (ITC) which elicits the consumer surplus and deduces an optimum entry fee. It investigated key socioeconomic factors which influence visits to Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens. A questionnaire survey was conducted on 54 visitors to Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens during the period of the research to solicit for primary data. The primary data were analysed using the Ordinary Least Squares model to obtain a predictive model of visits to Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens. Using the ITC Method the total consumer surplus which equates to the recreational use value of Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens was USD19 142.16/peak period/year. Travel costs, income and employment status were the major factors driving visitation rates to Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens at an optimum entry fee of USD7.81. To maximise profits for self-sustenance of Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens, the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Authority should concentrate on marketing efforts to individuals of higher income and solid employment status and those proximal to the botanical gardens as these incur less travel costs and can afford entry fees. For posterity, the use of ITC Method to ascertain economic value allows for the true valuation of natural resources and is justifiable for the allocation of funds by central government for the management and maintenance of artificial heritage sites such as Ewanrigg Botanical Gardens in developing African countries.

Modular by necessity – Bracklinn Falls footbridge

Bracklinn Falls is situated in a gorge surrounded by ancient woodland within the Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park. The park authority required a replacement footbridge to cross the gorge and to provide views of the falls. However, access for construction plant and materials was extremely difficult, with the sole access by way of a steep and sharp-cornered path. The construction and access constraints drove the development of a new modular system and governed the structural and aesthetic design for the new footbridge. The resulting structure consists of perforated panels, formed from single sheets of weathering steel folded into a z-shape. These panels were bolted to cross-frames and assembled to create a half-through beam that spans 21.4 m. The scheme achieved an A+ rating under the ‘structural carbon for bridges’ (SCORBs) system (Archer and Green, 2021). The structure was assembled bay by bay and push launched along a set of temporary rails, then jacked onto the permanent bearings. By using a folding process, the modular system minimised welding and hence fabrication time. The system is in the process of being developed for repeated use at other locations, and forms an attractive ‘flat-packed’ modular alternative for difficult to access locations.

Using IUCN Best Practice Principles to Evaluate National Park Management: A Zambia Case Study

Over the last three decades, a series of best practice principles have been advanced by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to guide national park management policy and practice. This study investigates how these best practice principles have informed the management of Zambia’s national parks. We performed qualitative and quantitative thematic content analysis on 23 park management documents and found that, for the most part, the reported performance of Zambia’s national parks is not well aligned with IUCN best practice principles. We argue that improved alignment with IUCN principles can provide a realistic and positive foundation to increase opportunities for national parks to meet their local and international conservation goals. Improved data collection, along with meaningful public access to information will enhance decision making and public participation in national park management. Strengthened public participation will ensure consideration of multiple perspectives and adoption of processes that enable national park authorities to address conservation challenges that span socio-ecological boundaries. Improved capacity building will provide the necessary technical skills and knowledge to ensure effective coordination and implementation. The results show that park management plans are duly submitted with little expectation of implementing them. More often than not, performance reality does not match policy rhetoric. The study highlights the urgent need for national park management to articulate clear goals and action steps with mechanisms to implement them.

Assessing Threats to the Drill monkey (Mandrillus leucophaeus) and other Primate Species in Selected Ranges of Cross River National Park, Nigeria

The population of the endangered drill monkey (Mandrillus leucophaeus) and other primate species have continued to decline in Cross River National Park (CRNP), Nigeria. The current threats responsible for the population decline was assessed in four selected ranges (Anape, Aking Orem and Nsofang) through administrative park record, interview of hunters and field observations that spanned 194days (between July, 2021 – August, 2022) covering a distance of 997km. A total of 58 interviews of hunters were conducted in seven communities (Anape, Aking, Osomba, Orem, Ntebachot, Nsofang and Mkpot). Ninetyfive (95%) reported a decline in the population of the drill monkey as (65%) stated a rare encounter. Also, 90% reported to hunt primates with 64% reporting to hunt drill monkey even though they are aware of the existence of CRNP. However, 79% expressed their willingness to stop hunting if an alternative livelihood was provided. Thirteen threat indicators were recorded in both season (wet and dry), distributed across the four ranges surveyed. Spent cartridge (dry=12.75±10.41; wet=6.25±5.91), wire snare (dry=8.25±4.73; wet=8.5±3.42) and logging (dry=3.75±3.61; wet=3.50±2.65) were the highest threat indicators and correlated with the administrative record on threat in a ten year period (2012 -2021) (hunting 34.3% and logging 35.5%). Encounter rate of threat was highest in Nsofang (dry=0.78/km; wet=0.76/km) which harbours an enclave community (Mkpot) and lowest at Anape (dry=0.05/km; wet=0.18/km) suggesting more protection of this area considering the conservation interest in the region. The Park authority is therefore implored to intensify protection efforts in these other areas with high anthropogenic activities while considering the possibility of a joint forest management with host communities.

Exploring the spatial distribution of social impacts in protected areas

Protected Areas (PAs) are the most widely applied tool for biodiversity conservation. The primary role of these areas is to protect and restore ecosystems, but it has become increasingly evident that in order to designate effective PAs it is also crucial to take into consideration how they contribute to sustainable local socio-economic targets. In the past decade studies focusing on social impacts of PAs have increasingly studied a number of impacts such as on people’s quality of life, income and connectedness to nature. Although the literature on social impacts of PAs has increased there is limited evidence regarding the distribution of these impacts across different locations inside and near PAs. Addressing this gap is useful for practitioners considering that it is now widely accepted that social impacts are a significant predictor for the level of public support for PA. In the current study we explore this topic and analyse the spatial distribution of perceived social impacts in 4 European Protected Areas using primary data from 1,251 households. We apply a new modeling framework using Bayesian statistics revealing that social impacts are often unevenly distributed between local communities and extend outside the boundaries of a PA. Our analysis also shows that spatial proximity with other people (what are the perceptions of people who live nearby) is more important for predicting most perceived social impacts of PAs compared to how close respondents are to a PA. Our results highlight that social impacts may be geographically unevenly distributed in PAs and we present a new way of measuring the spatial distribution of these impacts which can be useful for national park authorities and in general managers of PAs.

Fostering Community Participation: The Role of Forestry Extension Officers in Maximizing Social Capital for National Park Conservation

The lack of community involvement poses a significant obstacle that may impede the achievement of success in the conservation partnership program between the Mount Merbabu National Park (MMNP) authority and the local community. This study serves a purpose and presents a new approach by investigating the impact of human and social capital on community engagement in the conservation partnership program, with the mediation of the extension worker’s role. This location was determined using a purposive method, focusing primarily on three villages surrounding MMNP, Indonesia. The sampling technique employed was simple random sampling, where 30 respondents were chosen from each village, resulting in a total sample size of 90 respondents. This study examines the variables using the Structural Equation Model (SEM) - Partial Least Squares (PLS) approach. Social capital has a positive and significant impact on community engagement through forestry extension workers, while human capital does not affect community conservation partnership involvement through the same workers. This study recommends enhancing social capital to increase community participation in conservation initiatives. Forestry extension officers should improve communication, social networks, and environmental competency to encourage greater community involvement in environmental protection. Keywords: community engagement, extension workers role, forest conservation, human capital, social capital

Park’s benefits to surrounding communities and its impact on wildlife conservation in Kainji Lake National Park, Nigeria

Projects linking conservation and development have been implemented around protected areas with a trust to generate benefits for local communities to garner support for the conservation of biodiversity in Nigeria's protected areas. Hence, this study assessed the Park's benefits to surrounding communities and its impact on wildlife conservation in Kainji Lake National Park (KLNP), Nigeria, to provide park managers with additional information in planning their activities. Four (4) randomly selected villages: Luma, Malale, Wawa and Gada Oli were surveyed with 110 questionnaire copies. The results show that the majority of respondents (55.5%) are males, whereas most households (38.18%) comprise 6 to 10 members. The major occupation of the respondents revealed that 42.7% were farmers in the surrounding national park, followed by traders (20%) and civil servants (16.4%). Most of the respondents were non-indigenes of the communities, while 37.20% of the respondents indicated that their monthly income was between ₦20,001 and ₦40,000. Eighty four per cent (84%) of the respondents agreed that the host communities' derived lots of benefits from KLNP, which include the donation of farm inputs (38.18%), employment (18.18%), empowerment programmes (16.36%) and infrastructural development (14.55%) through a majority (65%) of respondents indicated that there is no communities' involvement in the planning of park-initiated projects. The study further established that there is a significant relationship between income and the perception of respondents to wildlife conservation. However, other variables, such as age, sex, occupation, education, and household size are not significant to the notion. This study shows that Kainji Lake National Park's surrounding communities have an overall positive attitude towards the park. However, local people's responses to specific concerns and benefits showed a mixed perception. It is imperative for park authority to build on the communities' perception of conservation and development outcomes. Biodivers. Conserv. Bioresour. Manag. 2023, 9(2): 49-56

The road to recovery: conservation management for the Critically Endangered Bali myna shows signs of success

AbstractThe Bali myna Leucopsar rothschildi has long suffered heavy trapping, leading to its near extinction in the wild and categorization as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Decades of conservation breeding, release of birds and post-release management at Bali Barat National Park have, until recently, failed to secure a viable wild population. However, over the past decade, population increases, expansion into new areas of the National Park and beyond, and successful breeding in both artificial and natural nest sites have occurred. These recent successes are associated with a change in approach by the National Park authority from concentrating efforts on the last refugium of the species (an area protected from trapping but with potentially suboptimal habitat) and towards the human-dominated landscapes around the main road through the National Park. Bali mynas tended to favour areas with extensive shorter grass cover and open canopies and to shun denser woodland. Anthropogenic landscapes such as farmland and plantations presumably mimic the original savannah habitat of the species, but nestbox provision has probably been crucial in these areas in the absence of natural cavities. A potential further factor in the increases in myna numbers and range has been a scheme involving local people in commercial breeding of the species, thereby reducing its market price, and working with communities to reduce trapping pressure. We encourage continuing operation of this management strategy inside the National Park and its further extension into adjacent tourist areas, which appear to have myna-friendly socio-ecological conditions.

Morphometric Analysis of Trail Network and Tourist Vulnerability in a Highly Frequented Protected Area

Increasing interest in the natural environment and greater hiking activity have resulted in higher anthropogenic pressure in areas characterized by a geographic/physical setting that could present hazardous conditions. The development of these activities is influenced by the peculiar geomorphological and climatic conditions of the area. Visitors and hikers do not always have adequate cultural background and full awareness of natural dynamics, including the possibility of incurring hazardous conditions. For its cultural and landscape value and extraordinary trail network, the Portofino Promontory is frequented by more than a hundred thousand of hikers a year. However, due to the geomorphological characteristics of the area, the morphological features of the trail network (i.e., exposed paths, steep ups and downs, rocky sections with cables, etc.) and the peculiar meteo-climatic conditions, the number of accidents involving hikers has increased in the most recent years. This research uses a detailed LiDAR survey, a morphometric analysis, and a significant dataset of information on the frequentation of the hiking trail network and on the number of rescue operations carried out by the National Mountain Rescue and Speleological Service (CNSAS). These data have been related to the physical-geographical characteristics of the area. The results can be a useful tool for land management by the Park Authority.

Competing ‘Clear and Unambiguous’ Constructions: Darwall v Dartmoor National Park Authority [2023] EWCA Civ 927 and the Interpretation of Private Acts of Parliament

Competing ‘Clear and Unambiguous’ Constructions: Darwall v Dartmoor National Park Authority [2023] EWCA Civ 927 and the Interpretation of Private Acts of Parliament

Predicting the habitat suitability of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) under future climate scenarios

AbstractThis study aimed to predict the habitat suitability of Asian elephants in Madhesh Province, Nepal, by using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) modeling based on the occurrence data and environmental variables, including bioclimatic, topographic, vegetation‐related, and anthropogenic variables. The study was conducted under current and future climate scenarios for the year 2100. Among the districts of Madhesh Province, the largest suitable habitats for elephants are located in Rautahat district (30%) followed by Bara district (21%), with Dhanusha district having the smallest suitable area (1%). Elevation, slope, annual precipitation, precipitation of the driest quarter, and temperature seasonality were identified as the most important variables affecting habitat suitability. A total of 1037.3 km2 was identified as the current highly suitable habitat for elephants, primarily in grasslands and shrublands. The results of the study depict a slight increase in highly suitable areas under the emission scenarios shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP) 2–4.5 and SSP 5–8.5 but a severe decrease in suitable habitats and a drastic increase in unsuitable habitats. The research emphasizes the possible influence of human activities and land use on the living environment of elephants. The study, therefore, suggests that the authorities should prioritize future land use management to lessen the potential harm to the habitats of elephants and other endangered species in Nepal. It is also imperative to identify how elephants utilize their spatial habitat within their range to help park authorities devise efficient management strategies.

ON-REEF CYCLONIC WAVE CLIMATE THROUGHOUT THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

The Great Barrier Reef is an iconic ecosystem that is collapsing under low lagoon water quality from terrestrial runoff and resulting overly productive crown-of-thorns starfish, coral bleaching from thermal stress and physical destruction from tropical cyclones, to name the top four stresses. This collapsing is mostly seen in coral coverage declining over time from water quality and starfish stresses combined with episodic large scale drops from thermal stress and tropical cyclones. Action on improved land use would decrease the impact from water quality and starfish and action on climate change would reduce thermal stresses and hence, the frequency of bleaching events. Tropical cyclone impacts, while they may be getting more intense or larger under climate change, their destructive power is significant either way (i.e., before and after climate changes). These stresses have led to the administrative body, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, to shift from passive management to active interventions, which are generally extremely costly compared to the income generated by the Great Barrier Reef. Consequently, to ensure the limited resources are deployed to obtained maximum benefit, interventions are being tested across all stresses including cyclonic stresses. This requires fine scale determination of cyclonic wave climates across the entire Great Barrier Reef.

Narrative and Story-telling in Darwall & Anor v Dartmoor National Park Authority

Abstract Darwall & Anor v Dartmoor National Park Authority [2023] EWHC 35 (Ch) is a case framed by a particular narrative about national parks. This narrative exists separately from the explicit terms of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. Whilst a case comment about narrative seems unconventional, it is fundamental to understanding this case. This is because narrative shapes the legal questions asked in the case and so understanding narrative is essential to understanding the case itself. This comment places Darwall in its legal historical context, linking it to two legal questions from the case: the question of jurisdiction and the discussion of public access as a means of dispropriation. This illustrates that the legal questions in Darwall are asked as much because of the narrative that frames them, as they are of their explicit grounding in the legislation.

Evaluation of fisheries management policies in the alien species-rich Eastern Mediterranean under climate change

Recent decades have witnessed declines in the amount of fishing catch due to changes in the marine ecosystem of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. These changes are mainly a consequence of direct human activities as well as global warming and the entry of invasive species. Therefore, there is a need to improve fisheries management so that it accounts for the various stressors and uses of the marine environment beyond fishing, while providing sustainable catches and maintaining a healthy ecosystem. The ability to understand, and sustainably manage, the fishing industry relies on models capable of analyzing and predicting the effects of fishing on the entire ecosystem. In this study, we apply Ecospace, the spatial-temporal component of the Ecopath with Ecosim approach, to study the Israeli continental shelf to evaluate the impact of climate change and alternative management options on the ecosystem. We examine several management alternatives under the severe assumption of the RCP8.5 climate change scenario for the region. Results indicate that under business-as-usual conditions, the biomass of the native species will decrease, the biomass of the invasive species will increase, and there will be a decrease in the fishing catch. In addition, of the management alternatives examined, the alternative of prohibition of fishing in the northern region of Israel along with the establishment of a network of marine nature reserves provides the optimal response for the ecosystem and fisheries. The Achziv Nature Reserve is projected to be successful, improving the biomass of local species and reducing, to some extent, the presence of invasive species. These results are consistent with visual surveys conducted inside and outside the reserve by the Israeli Nature and Parks Authority. Furthermore, simulation results indicate spill-over effects in areas close to nature reserves yielding higher catches in those regions.

Applying Q-methodology to investigate the perception of the social and economic role of the national park by local stakeholders. Cases of national parks in the Carpathians

The modern approach to the management of protected areas (PAs) introduces a holistic perspective on these areas, in which they are not seen as isolated conservation zones, but as units integrated with their natural, social and economic environment. They are expected to harmonize their protective role with tangible benefits for local communities. Fostering both social and economic development is particularly important in underdeveloped, peripheral areas. The efficacy of management within this novel paradigm relies heavily on the attitudes and perceptions of local communities towards the PAs. As a result, the research was undertaken to identify local stakeholders' perceptions of the social and economic role of national parks (NPs) in the Carpathian region of the European Union (EU). The study was based on 170 interviews conducted in eight NPs, among four stakeholder groups (NPs authorities, local authorities, representatives of the tourism sector, local residents). Q-methodology was applied to achieve a comprehensive understanding of respondents' perspectives, along with their nuanced opinions. This methodology enables a statistical analysis that leads to the identification of groups of opinions and the examination of differences between them. Based on it, three main groups of opinions (perspectives) were identified in which the national park was perceived as: I) a stimulant to sustainable local development, II) a partner and a chance for future local development and III) a constraint on local development. Perspective I was dominant (44.7% of respondents), being the most typical for Pieniny NP (Poland) and Aggtelek (Hungary), and - considering stakeholder groups - for national park authorities (the most homogeneous group in terms of opinions). Perspective II was characteristic mainly of Retezat NP (Romania) and Magura NP (Poland) and perspective III appeared most numerously in Poloniny (Slovakia), as well as in Piatra Craiului (Romania). The local context, related to a particular NP, differentiated opinions more strongly than the stakeholder group or country of origin. Opinions regarding the current park-people relationships and impact of the NP on local development as well as expectations as to the commercial use of the park's territory (the vision of tourism development) differed strongly among the representatives of the perspectives. A consensus emerged regarding the belief that NPs should support local development (e.g. by promoting local products and ensuring the benefits of its functioning reach the local residents). Furthermore, there was a consensus in rejecting the top-down management model of NPs, with a vision for future development focused on fostering a park-people partnership. These consensus views provide a positive ground for the implementation of a holistic approach and an integrative management model for NPs in the Carpathians.