Parent Outcomes Research Articles

Psychological interventions for parents of children with intellectual disabilities to enhance child behavioral outcomes or parental well-being: A systematic review, content analysis and effects.

The aim of this review was to identify the type, content, and effectiveness of psychological parenting interventions for parents of children with intellectual disabilities to enhance child behavior and/or parental well-being. A systematic search yielded 21 studies involving 1825 participants. Studies were evaluated according to intervention content, pre- and post-treatment and follow-up effect sizes, and risk of bias. We categorized the interventions into those targeting 'Child or interaction' (child behavior, interaction and learning, understanding disability), and those targeting 'Parent' (parental well-being) or both themes. All these interventions had positive effects on parental well-being or child behavior. Parental outcomes were improved by interventions targeting 'Parental well-being', as well as 'Child or interaction'. Child behavior showed improvements in programs focusing on 'Child or interaction', and in a mindfulness-based parental well-being program. During follow-up, most effects were sustained or further increased, but some studies showed no improvements over the control group.

Optimizing parenting and child outcomes following parent–child interaction therapy – toddler: a randomized controlled trial

BackgroundParent–Child Interaction Therapy—Toddler (PCIT-T) is an attachment-informed intervention model designed to meet the specific developmental needs of toddlers aged 12–24 months presenting with challenging behaviors.MethodsThis study used a randomized controlled design to evaluate outcomes of PCIT-T for children aged 14–24 months with disruptive behaviors. Ninety toddlers with parent-reported disruptive behavior were randomly allocated to PCIT-T (intervention), an active control condition (Circle of Security– Parenting™; COS-P), or a non-treatment control condition (wait-list; WL). Outcomes were assessed at baseline (Time 1), post treatment/post waitlist (Time 2) and 4-month follow-up (Time 3).ResultsAt follow-up, the PCIT-T group displayed the highest levels of parenting sensitivity and positive parental verbalizations, and the lowest levels of negative child-directed verbalizations and non-attuned mind-minded statements. Of the three groups, the PCIT-T group showed the greatest degree of change on these variables, followed by the COS-P group and then the non-treated controls. The PCIT-T group were also the only group to show significant within-group improvements in sensitivity, self-reported parental reflectiveness, empathy and emotional understanding, parent-reported child social competence, child internalizing problems, and general behavior issues. Significant reductions in parental stress, child externalizing behaviors and parenting behaviors were seen for both the PCIT-T and COS-P groups.ConclusionsDelivered in the early intervention period of toddlerhood, Parent–Child Interaction Therapy—Toddler has the potential to bring about significant changes for children presenting with early onset behavioral issues.Trial registrationAustralian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR), 12,618,001,554,257. Registered 24 September 2018 – retrospectively registered, https://anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?ACTRN=12618001554257.

Determinants of Primary School Achievement: An International Comparison Using TIMSS 2011 DATA

Measuring educational performance and understanding its determinants are crucial factors in helping the educational community to better understand student output and to guide policy makers in drafting educational policies. Despite the growing number of studies interested in educational output and its determinants in many countries, there are few comparative surveys assessing both developed and developing countries. This article attempts to assess the impact of home environment, school resources and teacher quality on students’ educational achievement at fourth grade across developed and developing countries. In sum up we suggest for developing countries to invest in school resources and teacher quality for exemple ensure that primary school are well equipped with necessary resources and focus on improving teacher quality through better training and adequate compensation. According to developed countries findings suggest that home environment factors like having a computer, desk, personal room, and books—play a crucial role in student performance also consider the impact of parental outcomes and involvement in their children’s education we suggest to implement programs that support parental engagement and address socioeconomic disparities that impact the home learning environment.

Exploring how parents of chronically ill children learn self-compassion

ObjectivesParents of children with chronic illnesses face unique stressors that put them at risk for mental health disorders, such as anxiety, stress, and depression. In the U.S., 20% of families care for a child with a chronic health condition. Because self-compassion is a protective factor for parents against distress, this study examined the processes through which parents may become open to attending a self-compassion-based support program and acquiring self-compassion skills.MethodsEight parents who attended a 6-week self-compassion training were interviewed about their experiences during the program. Responses were analyzed using thematic analysis.ResultsParents were motivated to attend the program because they were open to change and trusted the program would be valuable. Learning self-compassion involved developing a kinder relationship with themselves and embracing their common humanity, which helped them recognize the existing strengths they have had to develop in order to care for their children. They also experienced greater emotional acceptance and reported learning self-compassion had impacted the quality of care they provided for their children.ConclusionsResults demonstrate the importance of acquiring trust from potential participants and combining social support (which can reduce feelings of isolation) with evidence-based training. Findings also provide insight for future researchers to examine the mechanisms of engagement in a program and to better understand the processes through which self-compassion supports positive mental health outcomes for parents of chronically ill children.

Support for parents and families after stillbirth and neonatal death.

This is a protocol for a Cochrane Review (intervention). The objectives are as follows: To identify and assess the effect of support interventions focused on psychological, social, and emotional outcomes for bereaved parents (including birth and non-birthing mothers, fathers, partners) and family members of parents (e.g. grandparents; siblings) who have experienced stillbirth or neonatal death.

An online, father-inclusive parenting intervention for reducing child conduct problems: a randomised controlled trial of family man.

Parenting interventions are effective for improving child conduct problems (CPs), but online self-directed interventions are required to improve reach and impact. Mothers are the main users of such programmes; fathers show low participation rates despite evidence of increased efficacy when they participate. This randomised controlled trial examined the efficacy of Family Man, a brief, self-directed online parenting intervention for fathers and mothers of children with CPs. The intervention involves several innovative design features to maximise the engagement of fathers. Families (N = 103; 102 mothers, 78 fathers) seeking help with managing their 2- to 8-year-old child's CPs were randomly assigned to either the Family Man intervention condition (n = 53) or a 4-week waitlist control group (n = 50). Primary outcomes were frequency and severity of child CPs and secondary outcomes included dysfunctional parenting, parenting efficacy, parenting stress, parental psychological distress, household disorganisation and interparental conflict. Repeated measures ANOVAs/MANOVAs found that at 4-week post-assessment, parents in the intervention group reported significantly lower levels of child CPs than waitlist. Significant effects for the intervention group relative to waitlist were also found across all secondary outcomes examined. Intervention effects were maintained at 2-month follow-up for the intervention group. Outcomes did not significantly differ for mothers and fathers. Results support the efficacy of this brief, self-directed online parenting intervention in improving child CPs and a range of parent and family outcomes, both for fathers and mothers. Implications for improving the reach and impact of parenting interventions and increasing father engagement, are discussed.

The Role of Informal Social Networks in Supporting Parents With Learning Disabilities: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACTBackgroundParents with learning disabilities are often assessed as lacking the capacity to parent effectively; however, ecological models of parenting indicate that support from informal social networks (ISNs) can help them successfully maintain family life. This systematic review examined evidence regarding (1) parent and child outcomes associated with support from ISNs and (2) perceptions of the roles of ISNs for parents with learning disabilities.MethodsPeer‐reviewed quantitative and qualitative literature was identified through a search of six databases, and a narrative synthesis was subsequently conducted.ResultsTwenty‐six articles were included in the review. Findings of the quantitative synthesis provided preliminary evidence for a positive relationship between support from ISNs and parental mental health, positive parenting practices and child wellbeing. The qualitative synthesis indicated that parents benefited from ISNs through their provision of practical and emotional support and learning skills. Network characteristics that divided supportive from unsupportive members were also identified.ConclusionParents with learning disabilities receive the same positive outcomes from ISNs as other parents, although unique contextual and social challenges may affect their experiences. Future research should explore interventions to build ISNs of parents with learning disabilities that acknowledge their existing strengths as parents and community members.

Patterns and relationships of prolonged grief, post-traumatic stress, and depressive symptoms in Chinese shidu parents: Latent profile and network analyses

Parents who experience the trauma of losing an only child are called “shidu” parents in China. There are individual differences in post-loss outcomes.1,061 Chinese shidu parents were asked to complete questionnaires assessing prolonged grief, post-traumatic stress, and depressive symptoms. The mean age of the sample was 59.68 (SD = 7.52), with the average time since the loss was 9.46 years (SD = 7.05). Most participants were female (62.3%). The main cause of the loss was an unnatural case (52.7%). Latent profile analysis was used to identify similar symptom patterns. Network analysis was used to explore the relationships among symptoms within different subgroups. A two-profile model based on symptom severity identified a “low symptom severity” subgroup (n = 419) and a “high symptom severity” subgroup (n = 642). In the low symptom severity subgroup network, the most central symptoms were loss of interest, feeling numb, and meaninglessness. In the high symptom severity subgroup network, the most central symptoms were physiological cue reactivity, emotional pain, and feeling easily startled. Individual differences in the post-loss outcomes of Chinese shidu parents are reflected not only in symptom patterns but also in the relationships among symptoms.

Nebulized Dexmedetomidine for Sedation and Mask Acceptance in Pediatric Patients Undergoing Surgery: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

PurposeCompare nebulized dexmedetomidine to other sedatives while assessing the level of sedation, mask acceptance, and parental separation anxiety in the pediatric population undergoing surgery. DesignSystematic review and meta-analysis. MethodsMEDLINE (PubMed), Google Scholar, CINAHL, the Cochrane Review Database, Google Scholar, and gray literature were searched for evidence. Risk ratio (RR) and standardized mean difference (SMD) were used to estimate outcomes with suitable effect models. The quality of evidence was rated using the Risk of Bias and the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach. FindingsEight studies (n = 615) were included in the review. Over 30 minutes following premedication, nebulized dexmedetomidine yielded comparable sedation scores to other nebulized treatments (SMD, −0.09; 95% confidence interval [CI], −0.45 to 0.28; P = .64). Subgroup analyses revealed that nebulized dexmedetomidine provided more satisfactory sedation levels compared with midazolam (SMD, −0.82; 95% CI, −1.37 to −0.26; P = .004), although it did not provide a satisfactory sedation level as ketamine (SMD, 0.34; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.67; P = .04). Furthermore, patients receiving nebulized dexmedetomidine showed higher rates of satisfactory mask acceptance (RR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.08 to 1.59; P = .007) and favorable parental separation outcomes (RR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.04 to 1.32; P = .01). ConclusionsNebulized dexmedetomidine is efficacious versus nebulized midazolam but not nebulized ketamine for preprocedural sedation for pediatric patients undergoing general anesthesia. Nonetheless, it demonstrated superior results in facilitating parental separation and mask acceptance.

How Sexism in Institutions and Everyday Interactions Shapes Early Childbearing

Early childbearing is associated with poor outcomes for parents and children, potentially exacerbating inequality within and across generations. Building on the structural sexism and health perspective, we argue that systemic gender inequality is a conceptually important—and understudied—factor in early childbearing. Using survey data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health ( N = 5,052 female respondents and 32,595 person-years) merged to state, county, and school characteristics, we investigate how exposure to structural sexism during adolescence shapes early childbearing. We measure structural sexism in institutional domains with state and county-level measures of economic, cultural, and reproductive health. We also generate a novel measure of structural sexism in interactional domains, capturing gendered expectations, power dynamics, and conservative religious beliefs among school peers. We find that institutional sexism is associated with a higher likelihood of early childbearing among young women racialized as Black, but not among those racialized as White. Interactional sexism is also a significant predictor of early childbearing, and is especially salient for adolescents as they turn to peers for social cues about gender roles. Our results underscore the importance of institutional and interactional forces for shaping families and raise questions about increasingly polarized gender climates post- Dobbs.

Vicki L. Clifton: Stress, sex, and the placenta: its role in fetal and child development

Professor Vicki Clifton, PhD, GAICD, Dip Manag, Dip Counselling, FRSM, is a Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland Amplify Fellow specializing in obstetrics research through clinical trials and basic biology. With 327 publications, h-Index: 61, and over 14,000 citations, her research focuses on stress and maternal asthma during pregnancy, examining their effects on maternal health, placental function, fetal growth, and child health. She is notably recognized for her work on sex-specific placental function and stress responses influencing fetal growth and pregnancy outcomes. Professor Clifton has led her institution's asthma and pregnancy research program, establishing multi-disciplinary, end-user-engaged research programs in Australia and overseas. Her innovative research has advanced our understanding of factors affecting asthma during pregnancy, leading to new models of care and improved fetal outcomes. Her work has influenced national and international asthma management guidelines, identified sex-specific mechanisms affecting maternal-fetal health, and expanded the frontiers of existing knowledge on fetal-neonatal physiology. Through preclinical studies and clinical partnerships, she has rapidly translated findings into practice guidelines and consumer information. She currently leads the Queensland Family Cohort study, a state-wide longitudinal study linking parental and child health outcomes to biological mechanisms. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, she pioneered women's leadership as the first female President of the Endocrine Society of Australia and the first female Editor of Placenta (Elsevier). As an NHMRC Research Fellow (2000–2023), she has secured over $25 million in category 1 grants. We are privileged to have Professor Clifton share her personal and professional insights with our readers in this Genomic Press Interview.

Roles of Psychological Flexibility, Parenting Competence, and Asthma Management Self-Efficacy in the Functioning Outcomes of Parents of Children with Asthma Co-Occurring with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Asthma and ADHD represent prevalent pediatric conditions, with the former being a physical disorder and the latter being a neurodevelopmental disorder. This study examined the influence of parental psychological flexibility (PF)-the ability to adapt to evolving situational demands, shift perspectives, and balance competing priorities-alongside parenting competence and asthma management self-efficacy on family functioning and parental psychological adjustment in families with children exhibiting concurrent asthma and ADHD symptoms. Baseline data were analyzed from 130 parents (mean age = 40.3 years, SD = 5.5; 88.9% mothers) of children diagnosed with both asthma and ADHD (mean age = 8.0 years, SD = 2.2; 74.6% boys), who were participating in a randomized controlled trial evaluating an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)-based parenting intervention. An adjusted structural equation model revealed that greater parental psychological inflexibility was significantly associated with poorer family functioning (β = -0.61, 95% CI [-0.74, -0.33], p < 0.001) and increased psychological maladjustment (β = 0.48, 95% CI [0.32, 0.63], p < 0.001), accounting for intercorrelations with parenting competence and parental asthma management self-efficacy. Additionally, parental psychological flexibility was found to mediate the relationship between parenting competence and both family functioning and psychological adjustment. These findings underscore the importance of targeting parental psychological inflexibility and enhancing parenting competence in interventions to improve family dynamics and parental mental health and thereby suggest a shift from the traditional focus on self-efficacy in symptom management for pediatric asthma and ADHD.

Unlocking Health Literacy: investigating Parental Health Literacy and Child Weight Outcomes

Abstract Background While parental health literacy (HL) is widely recognized as crucial for child health, research on its impact on children’s weight-related outcomes remains limited. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating the associations between parental HL and children’s anthropometric measurements, with a focus on child BMI Z-score and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR). Methods As part of a cluster randomized trial in primary schools serving vulnerable populations, 735 children (51.7% boys, mean age 7.7 years) participated. Parental HL was assessed using the HLS-Q12 questionnaire, comprising 12 items. Health literacy levels, standardized from 0 to 100, were categorized into ‘inadequate,’ ‘problematic,’ ‘sufficient,’ and ‘excellent’ HL. General HL and three specific domains-health promotion, disease prevention, and healthcare-were computed. Children’s weight, height, and BMI were measured following standardized procedures. Regression analyses examined HL’s impact on BMI Z-scores and WHtR. Results Parents with higher HL in disease prevention and health promotion had children with significantly lower BMI Z-scores, even after adjusting for parental education and children’s sex sex [-0.010 (-0.18; -0.0001) and -0.10 (-0.019; 0.01). Similar associations were found for WHtR [-0.0004 (-0.001; -0.0001)]. Parents with excellent HL in general and health promotion had significantly lower WHtR [-0.027 (-0.046; -0.008)] and BMI Z-score [-0.74 (-1.2; -0.28)]. Conclusions This study highlights the significant role of parental health literacy in shaping children’s weight-related outcomes. Higher levels of parental HL in disease prevention and health promotion were linked to lower BMI Z-scores and WHtR in children, independent of parental education and children’s sex. Enhancing parental HL, alongside promoting healthy behaviors and environments for children, could lead to more effective approaches for addressing this public health issue. Key messages • Parental health literacy is associated with children’s weight outcomes, emphasizing the need for HL-focused interventions. • Higher parental HL is associated with lower child BMI Z-scores and waist-to-height ratios, highlighting potential HL’s role in combating childhood obesity.

The Effectiveness of Trauma-Informed Parenting Programs for Traumatized Parents and Their Components: A Meta-Analytic Study.

Parents who have been exposed to trauma face distinct challenges in parenting that can lead to negative child developmental outcomes and intergenerational transmission of trauma. Parenting programs for traumatized parents seem promising, but the existing evidence on their effectiveness has not yet been synthesized. This study aimed to examine the overall effect of trauma-informed parenting programs on (a) parenting and (b) parental mental health outcomes by conducting two three-level meta-analyses. Moderator analyses were performed to identify whether program components, delivery techniques, and other study and program characteristics were associated with effectiveness. A literature search conducted up to August 2024 yielded 15 studies reporting on 110 effect sizes. Significant overall effects were found of trauma-informed parenting programs on both parenting outcomes (d = 0.75, 95% CIs = [0.09, 1.15], p = .027) and parental mental health outcomes (d = 0.21, 95% CIs = [0.09, 0.32], p < .001). The first meta-analysis on parenting found no significant moderators, while the second meta-analysis on parental mental health indicated that programs emphasizing child disciplining skills yielded smaller effects (d = 0.04) compared to programs without this component (d = 0.31). Programs using modeling techniques yielded larger effects (d = 0.32) compared to programs without (d = 0.14). Larger program effects on parental mental health were also found for programs with longer durations and when individual sessions were used. Thus, evidence supports the effectiveness of trauma-informed parenting programs in improving parenting and reducing parental mental health problems.

Playful activities mitigate relations between parental mental health difficulties and child verbal outcomes.

This study examined the role of parental involvement in the home learning environment in the association between parental mental health and child cognitive performance. In a sample of 174 three- to five-year-old children (52% female, 97% White, 7% Hispanic, 2019-2022), playful activities moderated the relation between parental general depression and child verbal reasoning and acquired verbal knowledge. However, there was no evidence that parental involvement moderated the association between parental mental health and child spatial reasoning. These results improve our understanding of the pathways by which parental mental health, even in a non-clinical community sample, relate to child outcomes and raise the possibility of leveraging playful activities as one mechanism to alleviate the potential role of parental mental health difficulties.

Exploring the effects of mental health on bonding and caregiving among pregnant and postpartum persons with likely depression and/or PTSD in South Africa: A qualitative analysis.

Perinatal mental health disorders place a particularly high public health burden on South Africa (SA) via negative health outcomes for the birthing parent and adverse health outcomes for infants (e.g., low birth weight, preterm deliveries, malnourishment) as well as emotional and behavioral problems in children. Depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other mental health disorders may also compromise engagement in HIV prevention behaviors during the perinatal period, when HIV acquisition risk increases. This is particularly important in SA, where almost a quarter of women between ages 15 to 49 have HIV. There is little research exploring the anticipated impacts mental health symptoms have on one's ability to emotionally connect or caregive after delivery; this critical information will enable providers to support women and their mental health during the transition from pregnancy to postpartum. HIV-negative pregnant persons were recruited from an antenatal clinic in Cape Town as a part of a larger study investigating mental health barriers to pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) uptake during pregnancy. Participants qualified for an in-depth interview based on elevated symptoms of depression and/or PTSD. The interviews explored the likely impact of their mental health symptoms on their baby's wellbeing, their ability to bond with their baby, and their ability to meet their baby's needs. Following the principles of thematic analysis, we identified three main themes that described these relationships: (1) a strong perceived connection between maternal mental health and baby's wellbeing; (2) perceived strains on bonding with the baby; and (3) negative impact of mental health on likelihood of completing parenting tasks. This study will inform future mental health programming to prepare pregnant persons with mental health symptoms for a successful postpartum period with respect to bonding and caring for their infant.

Evaluation of a Model of Transitional Care After Preterm Birth on Parents' Mental Health and Self-Efficacy: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial.

Parents of premature infants experience depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and increased stress, which can negatively impact parent-infant relationships and infant development. To reduce negative consequences and optimally support families, we developed the Transition to Home model (TtH). In this randomized controlled pilot trial (RCT), the feasibility of performing an experimental study to analyse the effects of TtH on parental mental health over time was evaluated. The following domains were assessed: recruitment, follow-up and study burden, outcome measures used and parental mental health outcomes. We included n = 22 parent couples with their preterm infants in the control group and n = 23 in the intervention group. Depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorders, parenting stress, and parental self-efficacy were assessed at five timepoints. The study burden was evaluated once at the end of the study. The control and intervention groups had similar socio-demographic characteristics. The groups showed no differences in the mental health outcomes except for depression in mothers at T2 (p = 0.042) and T5 (p = 0.027) and state anxiety in fathers at T2 (p = 0.016). This pilot RCT established a framework for the evaluation of the TtH model of care and demonstrated the viability of the evaluation scheme. The results confirm the suitability of the RCT's structure and the feasibility of the methods and instruments used. Minor adjustments are recommended to include a more diverse sample in future studies.

The effects of neighborhood perceptions on response to a technology-assisted parenting intervention for adolescent substance use: protocol of a diversity supplement to parent SMART (Substance Misuse in Adolescents in Residential Treatment)

BackgroundIt is well established that an adolescent’s neighborhood is associated with their likelihood of developing a substance use disorder. The availability of drugs, lack of access to resources, and exposure to violence are all associated with greater substance use among young people, leading to more pronounced health inequities. Technology assisted interventions (TAIs) have been touted to enhance the reach of substance use treatment and improve outcomes for high-need families living in underserved neighborhoods. A key question is whether neighborhood characteristics impact the effectiveness of TAIs, given these interventions are embedded within an adolescent’s natural environment. This National Institute on Drug Abuse-funded Diversity Supplement will examine the role of perceived neighborhood characteristics on response to Parent SMART, a TAI for parents of adolescents in residential substance use treatment (R37DA052918; PI: Becker). Aim 1 will use both adolescent and parent self-report of multiple neighborhood dimensions (e.g., physical environment, social disorder, satisfaction with community resources) to identify indicators predictive of treatment response. Aim 2 will then explore the indirect relationship between neighborhood context and response to Parent SMART, via engagement.MethodsParticipants include adolescent and parent dyads enrolled in an effectiveness trial evaluating Parent SMART, a TAI for parents of adolescents in residential substance youth treatment. Participants will complete self-report measures of neighborhood physical environment, social disorder, and satisfaction with community resources at baseline to predict parenting and youth substance outcomes at 6-, 12-, and 24-weeks post discharge.DiscussionTo date, few studies have explicitly tested how neighborhood affects response to TAIs for adolescent substance use. Assessing adolescent and parent perceptions of neighborhood characteristics holds potential to pinpoint key contextual factors that affect TAI response and to promote consideration of multi-level health equity determinants in substance use research. Understanding neighborhood influences can advance public health by helping tailor TAIs to address the unique needs of adolescents living in underserved communities.Trial registrationThis study extends the measurement and analysis plan of a pragmatic effectiveness trial. The pragmatic effectiveness trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05169385; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05169385

Mental Health Outcomes of Parents with Children Enrolled in the Competence-Based Curriculum in Public Day Primary Schools in Nairobi County, Kenya

Involvement in their children's education through the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) significantly impacts the mental health outcomes of parents, necessitating a deeper understanding of how these educational demands influence parental well-being. This study examines the mental health outcomes of parents with children enrolled in the CBC in primary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. Utilizing Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT), the research employed a quantitative approach with a cross-sectional survey design targeting parents with children enrolled in the CBC in primary schools. A multi-stage sampling technique resulted in a sample size of 376 parents. Data were collected using structured questionnaires, including the Parenting Sense of Competence (PSOC) scale, Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory (MFI), Parental Stress Scale, and New General Self-Efficacy Scale. Statistical analysis using SPSS Version 25 involved descriptive methods. The findings revealed generally positive mental health outcomes, with high levels of parenting satisfaction and self-efficacy, alongside moderate levels of mental fatigue and stress. These results align with CBT, emphasizing the role of positive beliefs and effective coping strategies in maintaining mental health. The study concludes that while CBC aims to enhance learning, it also creates challenges for parents that impact their mental health.

Exploring past research to move forward: a scoping review of aims, outcomes, and recommendations in parental mental illness qualitative research.

As parental mental illness is a global public health concern, rigorous qualitative research is central to understanding families' experiences, needs and outcomes to inform optimal service provision in adult mental health and children's social services. The current review identified, appraised and synthesized international qualitative research exploring Families and Parent Mental Illness (FaPMI) research to determine the focus, findings and outcomes and to summarize the recommendations made about the direction of future research. Findings are classified according to outcomes for children, parents, and families. While some children experienced positive outcomes from a parent's illness, most faced impacts on their social-emotional wellbeing, school performance, increased caregiving responsibilities, strained parent relationships, and lack of understanding about parental mental illness. Some family members endured abuse and struggled to adapt to an ill parent's unpredictable needs, with reluctance to discuss the situation. Parents found parenting challenging yet viewed having children as a protective factor. Future research should gather diverse perspectives, explore within-family factors and social environments, develop and test interventions, and address methodological issues like sampling. This review highlights the centrality of qualitative data in comprehensively understanding and evaluating outcomes of parental mental illness on families and provides clear recommendations regarding future research.