Parental Rule Setting Research Articles

Beyond the Laws: Parental Monitoring, Perceived Acceptability of Underage Drinking and Alcohol Use Among Belgian Youth.

Parental monitoring behaviors are negatively associated with adolescent substance use. Yet, the processes explaining these associations are still unclear. The current study examined adolescents' knowledge of minimum legal drinking age laws and their perceived acceptability of underage drinking as potential mediators of the links between parental monitoring behaviors and youth alcohol use. The sample included 1154 Belgian adolescents (Mage = 16.34, SD = 1.33; 71% girls), who were recruited in Wallonia (54.9%) and in Flanders (45.1%). Path analyses revealed that higher parental rule setting, but not solicitation, was related to lower alcohol use. Acceptability of underage drinking mediated this link, but not knowledge of the laws. Results suggest that beyond laws regulating the minimum legal drinking age, alcohol use prevention programs should consider the importance of parental rule setting and youth's perceived acceptability of underage drinking.

Family and school factors related to internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence

ABSTRACT Family and school factors are among the most important determinants of internalizing and externalizing problem behavior in adolescents. The aim of this study is to explore how certain family and school factors explain internalizing and externalizing problems after one year. In addition to individual-level variables, school level variables are taken into account. This multilevel study was conducted among 507 adolescents (mean age 13.44; 52.3% girls) who reported their internalizing problems (anxiety, depressive symptoms), externalizing problems (aggressive and norm-breaking behavior), parental knowledge of their whereabouts, parental rule setting, school connectedness and teacher support. At the school level, the aggregated scores for school connectedness and teacher support were calculated. The results show that the differences between schools explained 13.4% of the variance in externalizing problem behavior although it did not account for internalizing behavior. Parental knowledge and school connectedness were significant predictors of both internalizing and externalizing problems. At the school level, aggregated teacher support predicted fewer externalizing problems. While some of the results are partially in line with previous findings, others were found to be contradictory. The implications for practice are provided.

Alcohol and Cannabis Use Milestones in Diverse Urban Adolescents: Associations with Demographics, Parental Rule Setting, Sibling and Peer Deviancy, and Outcome Expectancies

Objective: Alcohol and cannabis use progression milestones in adolescence (such as ages at first use, first intoxication and at onset of regular use) may inform the development of alcohol and cannabis use disorders. Although parent, sibling, and peer behavior and alcohol-related cognitions have been shown to be associated with alcohol milestone attainment, findings have been mixed; further, those factors’ associations with cannabis use milestones are unknown. This study examined whether progression through such milestones differed as a function of perceived peer/sibling deviancy, parental rule-setting, and substance use outcome expectancies in a racially diverse adolescent sample. Methods: Data were drawn from a two-wave longitudinal health survey study of 9-11th graders (n = 355 for the current analyses; M age=15.94 [SD = 1.07]; 44% male; 43% Black; 22% White; 18% Asian; 17% Multiracial; 10% Hispanic/Latinx ethnicity) at an urban high school. A series of logistic and proportional hazards regressions examined associations of peer/sibling deviancy, parental rule-setting, and outcome expectancies with age and attainment of alcohol/cannabis use milestones. Results: For both alcohol and cannabis, greater peer deviancy and positive expectancies were associated with higher odds of milestone attainment, while negative expectancies were associated with slower progression through milestones. For cannabis, but not alcohol, greater perceived sibling deviancy was positively associated with milestone attainment, while negative expectancies were associated with lower odds of milestone attainment. Conclusions: Perceived deviant behavior by peers and siblings, in addition to adolescents’ expectancies for either alcohol or cannabis use, is associated with attainment and progression through key adolescent substance use milestones.

Violent Behaviours among Adolescents and Young Adults: Association with Psychoactive Substance Use and Parenting Styles.

This study extends existing research on the relationship between psychoactive substance use among young people and violent behaviour, by evaluating the possible effect of the modification of parenting in a nationally representative sample of 14,685 Italian students drawn from the 2019 wave of the ESPAD Italia survey (51% male; mean age about 17 years). Parental dimensions considered in the study were rule-setting, monitoring, and emotional support, as well as the possible absence of a parent. Relative risk ratios and binary logistic regressions were used to estimate the associations separately for adolescents (15–17) and young adults (18–19). Overall, parental rule-setting, perceived parental monitoring, and emotional support were protective factors for substance use, and the strength of this relationship increased with the frequency of use. Among adolescents, the absence of a parent represented a risk factor. In both age groups, the odds of engaging in violent behaviour was increased among those reporting alcohol intoxication and substance use and the greater the frequency of use, the greater the increase in the odds. As parental monitoring and emotional support decreased, the odds of engaging in violent behaviour increased (except in the case of lower parental support among young adults), while the opposite applies to parental rule-setting. The odds of engaging in violent behaviour were increased among those reporting the absence of a parent only in the adolescent age group. Parental rule-setting was found to have an effect only among adolescents, increasing the odds of violent behaviour among frequent drinkers. Our results might be helpful to signal adolescents who would be more prone to adopt violent behaviour in order to target prevention policies.

The Effect of An Indirect Voice Therapy Approach on the Voice of Children With Vocal Fold Nodules: A Prospective Cohort Study

To investigate the effect of a combination indirect voice therapy approach on the management of vocal nodules in the pediatric population. A prospective cohort study with thirty children (24 males and 6 females; mean age 8.8 ± 2.2) with a diagnosis of vocal fold nodule (VFN) was conducted. All participants were included in an 8-week voice therapy program consisting of vocal hygiene education and parental rule-setting. Videolaryngoscopic examination, auditory-perceptual evaluation, and acoustic voice analysis were performed immediately before and after the intervention. The comparison of videolaryngoscopic findings before and after the therapy revealed that the size of the nodules decreased significantly (P < 0.001). Findings from the laryngeal examination showed that the vast majority of children 73.3% (n = 22) had no VFN anymore after the intervention. The auditory-perceptual evaluation showed that overall severity of dysphonia decreased significantly [from 50 (40-70) to 38 (30-45), P < 0.001]. Jitter local (P = 0.031) and Jitter local abs (P = 0.043) parameters statistically differed after the therapy. There were not any statistically significant differences for mean F0, shimmer local (%), shimmer local (dB), and mean HNR. The voice therapy method in this study has a clear benefit on the voice of children with VFN and can be used in clinical practice. Specifically, clinicians should consider the parents as a core component of voice therapies and pay attention to vocal hygiene education for optimal management of VFN related childhood dysphonia.

Problematic internet use, depression, stress and anxiety amongadolescents in an urban area in South India: a cross sectional study

Background: Internet usage is ubiquitous, especially among young population in urban India. The present study aims to assess the burden of problematic internet use and to determine its association with depression, anxiety and stress among adolescents in urban South India. We have also assessed the role of parental/care giver factors in internet usage among the adolescents.Methods: This was a school based cross sectional study among two high schools in urban field practice area. The students were administered validated questionnaire on sociodemographic details, parental/care giver factors, pattern of internet usage, problematic and risky internet use screening scale as well as depression, anxiety and stress scale-21.The descriptive data was analysed as proportions and associations were determined using Chi square tests.Results: 24% of students had PIU and this was significantly associated with stress, depression and anxiety. 33% had stress and class of studying was found to be the only significant determinant. Almost half (48%) had depression and class of studying, type of family as well as mother’s occupation were the significant determinants. Half (50%) had anxiety with the significant determinants being age, class of studying, type of family, type of school, religion and father’s education. The only common factor found to significantly affect internet usage was parental rule setting and supervision.Conclusions: Depression, stress and anxiety were associated with PIU. Setting and enforcing reasonable rules while maintaining trust and emotional support is essential to protect adolescents from the harmful effects of problematic internet usage.

97. The Role of Parental Monitoring as a Protective Factor Against Youth Violence Victimization

Parental monitoring is a bidirectional construct, comprising parental knowledge of a child’s activities, communication about their activities, and an active structuring of their environment (e.g., parental rule setting). High parental monitoring is associated with improved youth health outcomes including delayed sexual initiation and decreased substance use. However, less is known about the role of parental monitoring in preventing violence. Seeking to further elucidate how violence risk and protective factors interrelate, we examined associations between parental monitoring and multiple domains of violence victimization among a school-based sample of adolescents in Pittsburgh, PA.

Partners or adversaries? The relation between juvenile diversion supervision and parenting practices.

Based on guiding principles such as parens patriae, juvenile probation officers (JPOs) not only supervise youth, but in certain jurisdictions they also decide how control-oriented their conditions will be. JPOs' perceptions of parenting could be related to their decision making. This study examined: (a) whether JPOs' perceptions of the home were associated with the conditions they placed on youth; (b) if JPOs' perceptions of the home aligned with the youths' perceptions; and (c) if JPOs' control-oriented conditions were associated with changes in parenting practices. (H1) JPOs' perceptions of the home should be positively related to youths' perceptions of parenting practices. (H2) JPOs' perceptions of the home should be positively associated with the conditions imposed. (H3) JPOs' control-oriented conditions may be positively associated with increased parental supervision, yet they may also be associated with lessened parental supervision. The sample consisted of 265 male youth (mean age = 15.41; 76.6% Latino, 19.25% White, 0.75% Black) who were arrested for the first time and placed on supervised diversion. Latent class analyses indicated that there were three supervision conditions classes: standard, moderate, and high control. JPOs' perceptions of the home did not align with youths' perceptions of parenting practices (e.g., rule setting, curfew setting, and monitoring) yet they were the strongest predictor of receiving the most control-oriented conditions. Surprisingly, parental rule setting, curfew setting, and monitoring declined once youth were placed under supervision, and declines did not differ based on how control-oriented their official conditions were. Parents are thought to be vital in justice-involved youths' success. Yet within this sample, officers' perceptions of the family did not align with youths' perceptions. Further, parental supervision declined equally regardless of how control-oriented youths' supervision conditions were. Parents must be better integrated into the process to enhance the success of youth on community supervision. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental supervision and later offending: A systematic review of longitudinal studies

Abstract Parental supervision has been identified as an important influence on offending. This systematic review focuses specifically on parental supervision, compared to existing systematic reviews which tend to concentrate on a wider range of family factors. The main aim of this article is to assess the precise nature of the association between parental supervision and offending. Overall, 19 prospective longitudinal studies were identified (published since 1996) which met the inclusion criteria. The results show a weighted mean effect size (ES) of Cohen's d = 0.37 between parental supervision and later offending. This review discovered that studies use different types of behavior to define parental supervision. Interestingly, a larger weighted mean effect size (d = 0.45) was found for studies measuring ‘level of parental knowledge’ compared to studies measuring ‘child disclosure to parents’ (d = 0.33) or ‘parental rule setting’ (d = 0.14). The results suggest that the strength of social bonds is important for enabling parents to maintain high levels of knowledge. Prevention programs should aim to develop robust channels of communication that increase parental knowledge regarding the activities of their children. Future research should also clarify the definition of parental supervision, in order to make it possible to compare different studies of parenting.

Mediators of the effectiveness of a kindergarten-based, family-involved intervention on pre-schoolers' snacking behaviour: the ToyBox-study.

The present study aimed to explore the mediating role of family-related determinants on the effects of the ToyBox-intervention on pre-school children's consumption of healthy and unhealthy snacks. The ToyBox-intervention was a kindergarten-based, family-involved intervention with a cluster-randomized design, aiming to promote healthy lifestyle behaviours to prevent obesity at pre-school age. Kindergartens (n 309) in six European countries. A total of 6290 pre-schoolers and their families participated in the ToyBox-intervention in 2012-2013 and data from 5212 pre-schoolers/families were included in the current analyses. Even though the total effect of the ToyBox-intervention on healthy and unhealthy snacking was not significant, the ToyBox-intervention significantly improved parental rule setting on children's unhealthy snack consumption (i.e. restriction of snacking while watching television and permission only at certain occasions) and parental consumption of unhealthy snacks, while it increased parental knowledge on snacking recommendations. Regarding healthy snacking, the ToyBox-intervention improved children's attitude towards fruit and vegetables (F&amp;V). All previously mentioned family-related determinants mediated the intervention effects on pre-schoolers' consumption of healthy and unhealthy snacks. Almost all family-related determinants examined in the study were independently associated with pre-schoolers' consumption of healthy and unhealthy snacks. The intervention was effective in improving relevant family-related determinants. Interventions aiming to promote F&amp;V consumption and limit the consumption of unhealthy snacks in pre-schoolers should target on these mediators, but also identify new family-, school- or peer-related determinants, to enhance their effectiveness.

Trends in adolescent alcohol use in the Netherlands, 1992–2015: Differences across sociodemographic groups and links with strict parental rule-setting

BackgroundFrom an international perspective, studying trends in adolescent alcohol use in the Netherlands is an important case study. Whereas Dutch adolescents topped the international rankings of alcohol consumption in the beginning of this century, they are nowadays found more toward the bottom of these rankings. This study examines time trends in adolescent alcohol use between 1992 and 2015, and tests whether these trends differ according to gender, age group, and educational track. Moreover, it examines to what extent the strictness of parental rule-setting can explain the identified trends. MethodsUsing data from ten waves of two nationally representative studies with a repeated cross-sectional design, trends were examined for eight different alcohol measures. Interaction analyses were conducted to test for subgroup differences. All analyses were controlled for educational track, family structure, and ethnicity. For the period 2007–2015, trends in parental alcohol-specific rule-setting were included as a predictor of the trends in adolescent alcohol use. ResultsAdolescent alcohol use increased substantially between 1992 and 2003, and decreased sharply thereafter. Trends were stronger for 12- to 15-year olds, compared to the 16-year olds, and for adolescents attending higher educational tracks, compared to adolescents attending lower educational tracks. Overall, gender differences remained constant over time. Between 2007 and 2015, strict parental alcohol-specific rule-setting increased substantially, and this (partly) explained the strong decline in adolescent alcohol use during this period. ConclusionThis study shows clear time trend changes in alcohol use among Dutch adolescents. The phenomenal decrease in adolescent alcohol use since 2003 appears to be closely related to a radical change in parenting behaviours surrounding the alcohol use of their children. While national prevention programs may have encouraged stricter parenting behaviours, the decline in alcohol use should be interpreted in a broader context of internationally changing sociocultural norms regarding adolescent alcohol use.

Reducing Children's Susceptibility to Alcohol Use: Effects of a Home-Based Parenting Program.

This 4-year efficacy trial tested whether a home-based, self-administered parenting program could have a long-term effect on children's cognitive susceptibility to alcohol use, and it tested hypothesized moderators and mediators of any such program effect. Using a two-group randomized controlled design, 1076 children (540 treatment; 536 control; mean age of 9.2years at baseline) completed telephone interviews prior to randomization and follow-up interviews 12, 24, 36, and 48months post-baseline. Mothers of children randomized to treatment received a 5-month-long parenting program during year 1, followed by two 1-month-long boosters in years 2 and 3. Exposure to the program was significantly inversely associated with susceptibility to alcohol use 48months post-baseline (b = -0.03, p = .04), with no variation in program effects by parental alcohol use or mother's race/ethnicity or education, suggesting broad public health relevance of the parenting program. Path analyses of simple indirect effects through each hypothesized mediator showed that program exposure positively influenced parental communication to counter pro-drinking influences in the family and media domains and parental rule setting 36months post-baseline; these variables, in turn, predicted reduced susceptibility to alcohol use 48months post-baseline. Parallel (multiple) mediation analysis showed that the program had a significant indirect effect on susceptibility through parental rule setting. Together, the findings indicate that internalization of protective alcohol-related expectancies and intentions is possible among children whose mothers provide early exposure to alcohol-specific socialization. Additional research is needed to link alcohol-specific socialization during childhood with adolescent drinking outcomes.

Translational perspectives in addiction psychiatry

BackgroundHeritable factors account for approximately 50–60% of the risk for alcohol dependence. However, which genes confer this risk remains to elucidate. Moreover, genetic association studies are hampered by non-replication. Several strategies can be applied to approach this issue. One option is the application of intermediate phenotypes. Neurobiological measures that are closely related to the addiction phenotype may be more directly related to genetic variation. Intermediate phenotypes related to dopamine function seem particularly suitable, given the strong dopamine hypothesis in addiction. Another strategy is to include environmental factors, such as childhood adverse experience, in genetic association studies. We tested the effect of COMT Val158Met and DRD2 Taq1A genotypes, as modulators of brain dopamine function in the context of self-reported environmental factors, like childhood adverse experience.MethodsAlcohol-dependent patients (n = 110) and healthy controls (n = 99) were genotyped for the COMT Val158Met and DRD2 Taq1A genotypes. Childhood adversity was measured using self-report questionnaires. Dopamine sensitivity was assessed using an apomorphine challenge with cognitive performance and plasma growth hormone levels as main outcome measures.ResultsCOMT genotype modulated the effect of apomorphine on cognitive performance, but was not directly associated with alcohol dependence. Yet, the interaction between childhood adversity and COMT genotype did predict alcohol dependence. DRD2 genotype modulated the effect of apomorphine on plasma growth hormone levels and was also not directly associated with alcohol dependence. Yet, the interaction between parental rule setting and DRD2 genotype did predict alcohol use in a separate population-based sample of adolescents.ConclusionThis study provides evidence for a role of COMT and DRD2 genotypes in alcohol dependence using both the GxE and intermediate phenotype approach. This confirms that both an intermediate phenotype approach and GxE interaction analyses can be useful tools in understanding mechanisms mediating addiction vulnerability. The clinical relevance of dopamine genes and intermediate phenotypes for staging and profiling of alcohol use disorders remains to be investigated.Disclosure of interestThe author has not supplied his declaration of competing interest.

The Outcomes of an Alcohol Prevention Program on Parents’ Rule Setting and Self-efficacy: a Bidirectional Model

Most adolescents have their first encounter with alcohol in early or middle adolescence. Parents' rule setting about alcohol has been shown to be important to delay the onset and reduce the frequency of adolescents' alcohol drinking, but less is known about the potential role of parents' beliefs about their competence in and ability to influence their adolescents' drinking habits (i.e., parental self-efficacy [PSE], Bandura (Psychological Review, 84, 191-215, 1977). In this study, we examined the direction of influence between parents' rule setting and PSE as outcomes of the program "Prevention of Alcohol use in Students" (PAS), a prevention program aiming to reduce underage drinking by targeting parents and adolescents both separately and in a combined intervention. We tested two mediation processes in which the program would (a) have a direct effect on PSE, which in turn would increase parents' rule setting or (b) have a direct effect on parents' rule setting, which in turn would increase PSE. To examine these processes, we used a sample of 2562 parent-adolescent dyads (age 12 at baseline), followed annually over 3years. The results showed that the combined intervention increased PSE via an increase in parents' rule setting. No significant effect of the intervention on rules about alcohol via PSE was found. This is the first study to test the mediation processes involving PSE and parental rule setting in an experimental context where parenting practices are being actively changed. The results suggest that giving parents concrete advice on how to deal with alcohol drinking in their adolescents and at the same time helping adolescents to develop healthy attitudes about alcohol drinking have a positive influence on parents' self-efficacy.

The Synergy of Family and Neighborhood on Rural Dating Violence Victimization.

Rural adolescents are at high risk for dating violence victimization (DVV), which has serious negative consequences. Understanding more about the conditions that increase DVV risk for rural adolescents is needed to inform prevention efforts. In response to calls for examining the influence of upper levels of the social ecology on adolescent dating violence, this study examined whether associations between the family context and physical DVV were conditioned by the characteristics of the neighborhoods in which the family resided. Data were from a multi-wave longitudinal study of 3,236 rural adolescents nested in 65 block groups, which defined neighborhoods. Data were collected between 2003 and 2005. Multilevel growth curve modeling was conducted in 2014 to test hypothesized synergistic effects of the family and neighborhood on trajectories of physical DVV from grade 8 to 12. Low parental closeness was a DVV risk in residentially stable (p<0.001), but not unstable, neighborhoods. Family aggression was a DVV risk, regardless of neighborhood characteristics (p=0.001). Low parental monitoring and rule setting were not DVV risks and their effects were not moderated by neighborhood characteristics. Neighborhood ethnic heterogeneity was significantly (p<0.05) positively associated with DVV, but neighborhood economic disadvantage, social disorganization, and violence were not associated with DVV. None of the effects varied by sex of the adolescent, across time (grade), or by the combination of sex and time. Findings demonstrate the importance of considering the family and neighborhood, and particularly their synergistic effects in efforts to prevent adolescent DVV.

Effects of a combined parent–student alcohol prevention program on intermediate factors and adolescents’ drinking behavior: A sequential mediation model.

Previous work revealed that the combined parent-student alcohol prevention program (PAS) effectively postponed alcohol initiation through its hypothesized intermediate factors: increase in strict parental rule setting and adolescents' self-control (Koning, van den Eijnden, Verdurmen, Engels, & Vollebergh, 2011). This study examines whether the parental strictness precedes an increase in adolescents' self-control by testing a sequential mediation model. A cluster randomized trial including 3,245 Dutch early adolescents (M age = 12.68, SD = 0.50) and their parents randomized over 4 conditions: (1) parent intervention, (2) student intervention, (3) combined intervention, and (4) control group. Outcome measure was amount of weekly drinking measured at age 12 to 15; baseline assessment (T0) and 3 follow-up assessments (T1-T3). Main effects of the combined and parent intervention on weekly drinking at T3 were found. The effect of the combined intervention on weekly drinking (T3) was mediated via an increase in strict rule setting (T1) and adolescents' subsequent self-control (T2). In addition, the indirect effect of the combined intervention via rule setting (T1) was significant. No reciprocal sequential mediation (self-control at T1 prior to rules at T2) was found. The current study is 1 of the few studies reporting sequential mediation effects of youth intervention outcomes. It underscores the need of involving parents in youth alcohol prevention programs, and the need to target both parents and adolescents, so that change in parents' behavior enables change in their offspring.

The effects of nonsuicidal self-injury on parenting behaviors: a longitudinal analyses of the perspective of the parent.

BackgroundThe present study is the first to examine predictors and consequences of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) in adolescence using parent-reported data in a longitudinal design. Across three time points, we examined the reciprocal effects of parent-reported parenting behaviors as they are related to adolescents’ NSSI.MethodsThe present study is a three-wave prospective study in a large sample of community adolescents and their parents. At time 1 (age 12), the sample consisted of 1396 adolescent reports and 1438 parent reports. Time 2 (age 13) included 827 adolescent and 936 parent reports. At time 3 (age 14), 754 adolescent and 790 parent reports were obtained. Engagement in NSSI (adolescent report) was determined by an affirmative response to the item ‘Have you intentionally injured yourself (e.g., cut, burn, scratch) this year, without the intent to die?’. Parental awareness of NSSI at age 13 and 14 was examined using a single-item screening question. Parenting behaviors were examined by the parent versions of the Parental Behavior Scale.ResultsResults showed that although NSSI was reported by 10 % of the adolescents, only 3 % of the parents were aware of the NSSI behaviors of their children. Cross-lagged analyses showed a reciprocal relationship between NSSI and parenting behaviors over time. We found a significant effect of both positive parenting and controlling parenting on the presence of NSSI at time 2. But vice versa NSSI also has an effect on parenting behaviors over time. Results showed that NSSI at time 1 has an impact on controlling parenting behaviors, namely punishment at time 2. NSSI at time 2 showed an impact on parent’s perception of positive parenting, parental rule setting, punishment and harsh punishment.ConclusionsThe present study examined predictors and consequences of NSSI in a longitudinal design, and emphasized the importance of examining reciprocal interactions between NSSI and parenting behaviors. Furthermore, it is the first study to examine parent-reported data in a longitudinal design and gives insight into parents’ perspectives.

Sex-related online behaviors and adolescents' body and sexual self-perceptions.

This study investigated: (1) the prevalence and development of 2 receptive (sexually explicit Internet material [SEIM] use and sexual information seeking) and 2 interactive (cybersex and general social networking site [SNS] use) online behaviors in adolescence; (2) whether development of these behaviors predict adolescents' body and sexual self-perceptions; and (3) whether parental strategies regarding adolescents' Internet use reduce engagement in sex-related online behaviors. Four-wave longitudinal data among 1132 seventh- to 10th-grade Dutch adolescents (mean age at wave 1: 13.95 years; 52.7% boys) were collected. Developmental trajectories of sex-related online behaviors were estimated by using latent growth curve modeling. Self-perception outcomes at wave 4 and parental strategies predicting online behaviors were investigated by adding regression paths to growth models. Boys occasionally and increasingly used SEIM. Patterns for girls' SEIM use and boys' and girls' sexual information seeking and cybersex were consistently low. SNS use, however, was a common, daily activity for both. Higher initial levels and/or faster increases in sex-related online behaviors generally predicted less physical self-esteem (girls' SNS use only), more body surveillance, and less satisfaction with sexual experience. Private Internet access and less parental rule setting regarding Internet use predicted greater engagement in sex-related online behaviors. Although most sex-related online behaviors are not widespread among youth, adolescents who engage in such behaviors are at increased risk for developing negative body and sexual self-perceptions. Particular attention should be paid to adolescents' SNS use because this behavior is most popular and may, through its interactive characteristics, elicit more critical self-evaluations. Prevention efforts should focus on parents' role in reducing risky sex-related online behaviors.

Berlin evaluates school tobacco prevention - BEST prevention: study design and methodology.

BackgroundThe hazardous health effects of smoking are established, but there remains a need to evaluate existing smoking prevention strategies and to increase their effectiveness in adolescents. Strategies focusing on parental attitudes and rule setting have been identified as a potentially effective approach. The present manuscript describes objectives, study design and methodology of the BEST Prevention study.Methods/designBEST Prevention is a three-armed cluster randomized-controlled trial among 7th grade (11–16 years) students in Berlin, Germany. Schools were enrolled between 2010 and 2011 and allocated using a centralized randomization list into 1) a student smoking prevention intervention (visit to an established interactive circuit), 2) the same intervention plus a parent intervention, and 3) a control group (visit to an established exercise and nutrition interactive circuit). Students were assessed at baseline, 12 and 24 months via self-report, as well as via carbon monoxide and cotinine in saliva at the 24 month follow-up. Statistical analyses uses multi-level regression models with cluster effects (school and class within school) based on the intention to treat population. Here we report descriptive baseline characteristics of recruited schools, and schools classes. Two schools from the control group dropped out after allocation. Hence, 47 secondary schools from all 12 districts of the city, including 161 school classes and 3023 students are participating in the study. Of those, 2801 students completed the baseline assessment.DiscussionThe present manuscript provides details on the study design and methodology of a large school-based smoking prevention trial in a metropolitan area in Germany. Findings from this study will yield important insight into the long-term effectiveness of specific smoking prevention strategies, also in disadvantaged population groups.Trial registrationNCT01306552 (January 2011).

Interactions between parental alcohol-specific rules and risk personalities in the prediction of adolescent alcohol use.

To examine the impact of an important context variable (alcohol-specific parental rules) and an important person variable (risky personality traits) and their interaction on prospective adolescent drinking. Participants were 252 adolescents, 67.9% female, between 13 and 16 years old. Data were collected via online assessments during 2 years with four time points of assessments. We examined membership of alcohol use trajectories as a function of parental alcohol-specific rules, moderated by risk-associated personality traits. Permissive parental rules predicted early onset and trajectories of heavy drinking. High scores on Sensation Seeking and Hopelessness also predicted early onset and heavy drinking, but there was no evidence for moderation. The influence of parental rule setting and risk personality was confirmed, but no evidence was found that the impact of risk personality on adolescent drinking is moderated by parental rules. Implications of these findings, and limitations of the study, are discussed.