Parental Role Strain Research Articles

Parenting stress in the early years – a survey of the impact of breastfeeding and social support for women in Finland and the UK

BackgroundBeing a new parent can be both joyful and stressful. Parenting stress is associated with poorer health and well-being for parents and infant and increased psychological distress. For new mothers, physical and hormonal changes, expectations of mothering and demands of a new baby may cause additional stress. Breastfeeding is promoted as optimal for maternal and infant health, but can have both positive and negative psychological impacts. Formal and informal social support can offset parenting and breastfeeding stress. Source, content and context of support for new parents are important considerations. This study compares two countries with different parenting and breastfeeding contexts, Finland (more supportive) and the UK (less supportive), investigating the role of breastfeeding stress, self-efficacy and social support as predictors of stress and role strain for new mothers.MethodsA cross-sectional online survey was completed by 1550 breastfeeding mothers of infants up to 2 years old, recruited via social media platforms in Finland and the UK. Predictors of parenting stress and strain, including demograpic factors, childbirth experiences, breastfeeding and social support were investigated.ResultsWe found fewer differences between countries than expected, perhaps due to demographic and contextual differences. Women in Finland reported better childbirth experiences, more positive breastfeeding attitudes, and more self-efficacy than in the UK. Levels of parenting stress were similar in both countries. Women in the UK reported more parental role strain, but fewer breastfeeding stressors. Participants accessed more informal than formal supports, including their partner for parenting and facebook groups and family for breastfeeding. Analysis suggested breastfeeding stress and social support had significant direct effects – respectively increasing and reducing parenting stress and role strain, but no moderating effects of social support suggesting support did not change the relationship between breastfeeding and parenting stress.ConclusionsResults have important implications for the provision of breastfeeding and parenting support for new mothers. Simple interventions to manage stress for mothers in the postnatal period could be beneficial and are easily delivered by supporters. As shown elsewhere, socio-economic and cultural factors are crucial influences on parenting experiences.

Sociodemographic and health status predictors of parental role strain: A general population study.

Aims: Numerous studies indicate that stressors associated with parenthood can adversely affect parental well-being and children's psychosocial development. The aim of the study was to analyze sociodemographic differences in parental role strain in the general parental population. Methods: The study is based on a national postal survey of a random sample of 605 Icelandic mothers and fathers of children under 18. Results: Parental role strain was related to young parental age at first birth, female gender, non-married status, age of youngest child, age range of children, number of children in the household, and the parent's own chronic illness. Furthermore, chronic illness or disability of a child was markedly related to higher parental role strain, although the relationship was partly reduced with parental employment. Conclusions: Parental role strain is unevenly distributed in the parental population and varies by sociodemographic and health statuses of parents and children. Understanding and addressing parental role strain could improve parental mental health and help create a family environment that enhances the psychosocial development of children.

Physio-psychological Burdens and Social Restrictions on Parents of Children With Technology Dependency are Associated With Care Coordination by Nurses

PurposeTo determine the association between parental care burdens and care coordination provided by nurses for children with technology dependency, specifically regarding physio-psychological burdens and social restrictions. Design and MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted between October and November 2015. Participants were recruited via home-visit nursing stations, social worker offices, and special-needs schools. A total of 246 parents of children with technology dependency completed anonymous self-report questionnaires. Parental burden was measured using the Zarit Burden Interview. Care coordination for children with technology dependency was examined using items extracted from focus group interviews involving three nursing administrators at home-visit nursing stations, two social workers, and a coordinator of school education for children with special health care needs. Multiple regression analysis was performed to examine the relationship between parental burden and care coordination among 172 parents who contracted with visiting nurses. ResultsParents and children with nursing support were significantly younger and had higher medical care needs and higher parental role strain than those without nursing support. Care coordination from nurses predicted reduced parental burden, role strain, and personal strain (β=−0.247, p=0.002; β=−0.272, p=0.001; β=−0.221, p=0.009, respectively). ConclusionNurses' care coordination appears to be associated with a reduction in parents' care burden resulting from home medical care of children with technology dependency, especially the social restrictions and physio-psychological burdens. Practice ImplicationsStrengthening nursing functioning as care coordinators may contribute to reducing care burdens for parents of children with technology dependency.

Methamphetamine-Using Parents: The Relationship Between Parental Role Strain and Depressive Symptoms

The methamphetamine epidemic in the United States involves a large number of men and women with dependent-age children. However, we know little about the parenting strains experienced by methamphetamine-using mothers and fathers and the relationship of these parenting strains to mental health outcomes, specifically depressive symptoms. The primary goal of this study was to examine five dimensions of parental role strain in relation to depressive symptoms in a sample of 180 methamphetamine-using parents of dependent-age children in San Diego, CA. Dimensions of parental role strain included child emotional and behavioral problems, child physical health problems, child-related financial strain, interpersonal conflict involving children, and intrapsychic strain related to children. Methamphetamineusing mothers reported significantly more child-related emotional and behavioral problems compared with methamphetamine-using fathers (7.9 vs. 6.8; t = 2.5, p < .05). In multiple regression analysis, higher Beck depression scores were associated with being a mother (β = .186, p < .05), having more children younger than 18 years old (β = .165, p < .05), less emotional support (β = -.230, p < .01), and higher scores on intrapsychic parental role strain related to children (β = .288, p < .01). These findings suggest the importance of considering the multidimensional nature of parenting strain in the development of drug treatment and counseling programs for methamphetamine-using parents.

Socioeconomic differences in reading trajectories: The contribution of family, neighborhood, and school contexts.

In the present study, the authors use the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Cohort of 1998-1999, to examine the extent to which family, school, and neighborhood factors account for the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on children's early reading. Through the use of hierarchical linear modeling techniques, growth curve models were estimated to depict children's reading trajectories from kindergarten to 3rd grade. Family characteristics made the largest contribution to the prediction of initial kindergarten reading disparities. This included home literacy environment, parental involvement in school, and parental role strain. However, school and neighborhood conditions contributed more than family characteristics to SES differences in learning rates in reading. The association between school characteristics and reading outcomes suggests that makeup of the student population, as indexed by poverty concentration and number of children with reading deficits in the school, is related to reading outcomes. The findings imply that multiple contexts combine and are associated with young children's reading achievement and growth and help account for the robust relation of SES to reading outcomes.

Sociodemographic variations in parental role strain: Results from a national general population survey

The aim of the study was to analyse sociodemographic differences in specific and overall parental role strains in the general population of parents of children under 18. The study is based on a subsample of 872 Icelandic parents of children under 18, derived from a national postal health survey of Icelandic adults (response rate 69%). The study found that parents age 25-54, parents with more children living at home, employed parents, and mothers, especially single mothers and mothers in lower income families, were more exposed than other parents to specific and overall strains associated with the parental role. Parental role strains were unevenly distributed in the parental population. Describing and explaining the distribution of parental role strains contributes to the wider understanding of adult population mental health.

Predictors of Depression in Thai Women

This cross-sectional correlational study examined the associations between depression and family history of depression, early loss of mother before age 11, number of stressful life events, women's role strains, interpersonal conflict, parental role strain, perceived stress, social support, and sense of belonging in 142 Thai women (77 depressed and 65 nondepressed). Results from chi-square tests and t tests revealed that compared to nondepressed women, depressed women were more likely to have a family history of depression and history of loss of mother before age 11; significantly higher stressful life events, parental role strain, interpersonal conflict, and perceived stress; and significantly lower interpersonal resources, perceived social support, and sense of belonging. Results from logistic regression, however, showed that only family history of depression, perceived stress, and sense of belonging predicted depression in Thai women. Results from path analysis showed that 66% of the variance of depression was explained by the proposed model. Perceived stress had the strongest direct effect on severity of depression. Family history of depression had both direct and indirect effects on severity of depression. Number of stressful life events, interpersonal conflict, parental role strain, perceived social support, and sense of belonging had indirect but not direct effects on severity of depression. Loss of mother before age 11 and interpersonal resources had neither direct nor indirect effects on severity of depression. Results from this study contributed significant information for understanding depression in Thai women and can help health care providers in Thailand to provide better care for depressed patients and prevent depression in Thai women.

Interacting Effects of Multiple Roles on Women's Health

Our study tests several hypotheses concerning the effects of employment, marriage, and motherhood on women's general physical health. These hypotheses predict how the health effect of each role varies, depending on specific role characteristics and the other roles a woman holds. Our analyses utilize longitudinal panel data for 3,331 women from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women (follow-up intervals: 1978-83 and 1983-88). The Role Substitution Hypothesis proposes that employment and marriage provide similar resources (e.g., income and social support), and consequently, employment and marriage can substitute for each other in their beneficial effects on health. As predicted, we found that employment had beneficial effects on health for unmarried women, but little or no effect for married women. Similarly, marriage had beneficial effects on health only for women who were not employed. The Role Combination Strain Hypothesis proposes that employed mothers experience role strain, resulting in harmful effects on health. However, we found very little evidence that the combination of employment and motherhood resulted in harmful health effects. Contrary to the predictions of the Quantitative Demands Role Strain Hypothesis, it appears that neither longer hours of employment nor having more children resulted in harmful effects on health. As predicted by the Age-Related Parental Role Strain Hypothesis, younger age at first birth, particularly a teenage birth, appeared to result in more harmful health effects.

HIV-Seropositive Parents: Parental Role Strain and Depressive Symptoms

There is a paucity of studies that examine the impact of parenting strain on the mental health of HIV positive parents. This study compared HIV+ mothers and fathers on five dimensions of parenting strain, and examined sex differences in the effects of parenting strains on depressive symptoms. HIV+ mothers reported significantly more emotional/behavioral problems of children, more child physical health problems, and more child-related financial strain as compared to HIV+ fathers. The groups did not differ on mean levels of intrapsychic strain or interpersonal strain related to children. Increased parental role strain was associated with increased depressive symptoms, irrespective of the sex of the parent. Future research should assess the extent to which these findings are attributable to HIV serostatus.

Measurement Issues in the Assessment of the Experiences of Parenthood

The widespread and dramatic changes in structural characteristics of contemporary American families have encouraged social scientists to rethink the family as a social form, debate characteristics and qualities of functional families, and work to dispel myths and monolithic view of contemporary life (e.g., Bernardes, 1993; Cheal, 1993; David, 1993). Yet, in spite of all attention given to complexity and diversity found within families, relatively little research exists that focuses on contemporary parents and their experiences of parenthood as unit of analysis (Goetting, 1986; Rossi, 1968). What little research there is has been criticized for employing measures that lack an adequate conceptual and/or psychometric foundation (Goetting, 1986). The notion that measurement is crucial to social sciences is a commonplace and unexceptional observation. While importance of good measurement is openly acknowledged by research community (Grotevant & Carlson, 1989), there is often a lack of systematic attention to practice of good measurement (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). Within parenthood research, for example, complex concepts, such as parent satisfaction, parental role strain, and parental competence, often are assessed without any effort to define and specify their meaning. Furthermore, these concepts typically are assessed using a limited number of operational indicators where no defensible argument is presented (or can be made]) for measure's content validity. These limitations make it all too clear that widespread acceptance of importance of good measurement is not always honored in practice of research. This article is based on premise that, in order for social scientists to address absence of information about contemporary parents, they must first direct attention to assessment of key parenthood constructs. The article presents a general discussion of conceptual and operational issues relevant to assessing parenthood constructs. This general discussion is followed by a review and critique of measures designed to assess concepts central to research on contemporary parents. Recommendations for ways to improve quality of measures designed to assess these concepts also are discussed. MEASUREMENT ISSUES IN THE RESEARCH ON PARENTHOOD Most of measures used in extant parenthood research lack conceptual precision and are characterized by a lack of operational comprehensiveness and logical consistency. These measurement issues are discussed in a general way as factors that undermine quality of information available on experiences of contemporary parents. Theory and Conceptual Precision The concepts of interest to parenthood researchers are abstractions; they do not exist in fact -- meaning that they are neither directly or indirectly observable (Kaplan, 1964). Insight into a concept is derived from measurement procedures used for linking these abstract concepts to empirical indicators (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). In order to link abstract concepts to empirical indicators, researchers must evolve an explicit and organized plan for classifying (and often quantifying) data that will be presented as representative of concepts (Riley, 1963). This explicit and organized plan requires that meaning of concepts be specified. The organized plan for assessing abstract concepts begins, thus, with a process that links theory and measurement -- namely, conceptualization process (Blalock, 1982). The failure to bridge gap between theory and measurement is seen as one of measurement error (Blalock, 1982). Measurement error exists in any and all efforts to assess constructs that are not and cannot be directly observable. The goal in construction of a measure is to reduce risk of measurement error. Theory is related to reduction of measurement error by clarifying parameters and dimensions of a concept. …

Divorced Fathers

Previous studies show that divorced men exhibit high rates of psychological distress, alcohol abuse, and mortality. Using data from a recent national survey, we consider the possibility that these problems reflect strains associated with being a divorced father. The results show that divorced fathers report substantially higher levels of parental role strain than do married fathers. The data further indicate that the estimated effects of divorce on men's psychological distress levels and alcohol consumption are explained, in part, by higher levels of parental role strain among divorced men. Qualitative data from an in-depth interview study of 45 divorced fathers are examined to consider possible reasons why parenting in the divorced status may be conducive to parental role strain, psychological distress, and alcohol abuse.

Role strengths and strains of African-American mothers

This paper reports the findings from a study on perceptions of parental role strain as reported by 592 African-American mothers of minoraged children. The research focused on the extent to which utilization of traditional African-American networks would alter role strain reports. The availability of supportive current partners, number of minor children living in the home, availability of relatives in the same state, and residence in the Northeastern section of the United States were each significantly related to the respondents' role strain reports. The author analyzes the findings in terms of their individual, local and national implications for prevention.