History Of Parental Incarceration Research Articles

Health and care utilization among youth with a history of parental incarceration and homelessness.

Despite widespread recognition of the health and social risks posed by parental incarceration (PI) and homelessness, these challenges are rarely considered in unison. We sought to (a) assess the experiences of homelessness among youth with and without a history of PI and (b) compare the health and healthcare utilization among youth with a combined history of PI and homelessness. Examining data from eighth-, ninth-, and 11th-grade public school participants in the 2019 Minnesota Student Survey (N = 110,904), we calculated univariate and multivariate analyses to characterize the health status and care utilization of youth who have experienced PI, past-year homelessness, or both. We observed higher prevalence of homelessness among youth with a history of PI compared to those without. The group with dual PI-homelessness experience had a higher proportion of youth that were younger, male, and non-White; and living in poverty or urban areas compared to youth with PI history only. Even after accounting for demographic factors, the dual PI-homelessness group evidenced higher expected odds for several physical health conditions (e.g., asthma, diabetes), and differences in care utilization indicators relative to individual PI and homelessness groups. Findings suggest that PI may be overrepresented among recently homeless youth and that youth with such dual experience possess distinct, and often elevated, health service needs. Health, education, housing, and other systems may need intersectoral strategies to better identify and support this at-risk subset of youth through clinical and policy approaches. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for Health and Care Utilization Among Youth With a History of Parental Incarceration and Homelessness

Supplemental Material for Health and Care Utilization Among Youth With a History of Parental Incarceration and Homelessness

Health and Care Utilization among Youth with a History of Parental Incarceration and Homelessness

Health and Care Utilization among Youth with a History of Parental Incarceration and Homelessness

Bedtime Schedules and Sleep Regulation among Children of Incarcerated Parents

To investigate variation by parental incarceration history in the bedtime schedules set for elementary-age children and whether sleep was effectively regulated. We ran multivariate regression models estimating the relationship between parental incarceration and 6 measures of bedtime schedules and sleep regulation. Our sample included 9-year-olds in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n=3246), a survey of children born in large US cities between 1998 and 2000 that has an oversample of unmarried mothers. Children's bedtime schedules did not differ at a statistically significant level by parental incarceration history, but children of ever- vs never-incarcerated fathers had lower odds of consistently adhering to a set bedtime. Children of ever-incarcerated fathers also slept for less time on average than did children of never-incarcerated fathers, and they had lower odds of obtaining sufficient sleep. Bedtime consistency partly mediated the association between paternal incarceration and total sleep duration. Although caregivers set appropriate bedtime schedules for children of ever-incarcerated fathers, consistent adherence to those schedules may be particularly challenging given the structural hardships of paternal incarceration. Policymakers, researchers, and practitioners working to improve sleep among children of incarcerated fathers should focus on helping families to develop strategies for implementing bedtime schedules as consistently and effectively as possible.

Associations between parental incarceration and youth mental health conditions: The mitigating effects of adolescent resilience and positive coping strategies

The effect of parental incarceration history on child health is understudied. This study examined 2016–17 National Survey of Children’s Health data (n = 29,617, age 12–17, 49% female). Logistic regression was used to examine associations between parent incarceration, reports of current youth mental health conditions, youth resilience and positive coping strategies, activity participation, physical activity, sleep, and screen time. Youth exposed to an incarcerated parent were reported to have significantly more mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, conduct/behavioral problems, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and substance use disorder. Resilience, activity participation, and sleep reduced the odds of several mental health conditions in youth with parental incarceration. Findings suggest public health implications, including additional programming to enhance coping for these vulnerable youth.

Association of Childhood History of Parental Incarceration and Juvenile Justice Involvement With Mental Health in Early Adulthood

Young adults with a childhood history of parental incarceration (PI) or juvenile justice involvement (JJI) are more likely to have worse mental health outcomes than their peers. However, the association between mental health and exposure to both PI and JJI (PI plus JJI) is unclear. To determine the association of PI plus JJI exposure with mental health outcomes in young adulthood. A cross-sectional study of the US National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health was conducted to examine the associations between PI, JJI, and PI plus JJI and mental health outcomes (ie, depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, suicidal ideation, and mental health counseling). In-home interviews were conducted of 13 083 participants; 704 participants with PI after age 18 years were excluded, and 12 379 participants formed the analysis sample. Participants were in grades 7 to 12 in 1994 to 1995 and were ages 24 to 32 years at follow-up in 2008. Data analysis was completed in 2019. Parental incarceration, JJI, or PI plus JJI before age 18 years. Mental health outcomes in early adulthood (ages 24-32 years). The analysis included multivariable logistic regression models; accounted for individual, family, and geographic-level factors; and generated adjusted odds ratios. Among 13 083 participants (6962 female; weighted proportion, 49.6%) with a mean age at wave 1 of 15.4 years (95% CI, 15.2-15.7 years), 10 499 (80.2%) did not have a history of PI or JJI, 1247 (9.1%) had childhood PI, 704 (5.2%) had PI after age 18 years, 492 (4.5%) had JJI only, and 141 (1.2%) had PI plus JJI. Sociodemographic characteristics varied by exposure. Exposure to both PI and JJI was associated with a greater risk of depression (adjusted odds ratio, 2.80; 95% CI, 1.60-4.90), anxiety (adjusted odds ratio, 1.89; 95% CI, 1.08-3.31), and posttraumatic stress disorder (adjusted odds ratio, 2.92; 95% CI, 1.09-7.82) compared with peers with neither exposure. Exposure to both PI and JJI did not have an additive association with mental health beyond PI or JJI alone. This study suggests that exposure to the criminal justice system during childhood places individuals at risk for poor mental health outcomes in early adulthood. Clinical, advocacy, and policy efforts that prioritize reducing the impact of the US criminal justice system on children may yield substantive improvements in the mental well-being of those individuals as adults.

Youth self-reported health and their experience of parental incarceration.

Mass incarceration is becoming one of this country's most detrimental public health problems. Children are particularly affected by this phenomenon, as parental incarceration is associated with a host of adverse outcomes, including children's engagement in health-risk behaviors that may negatively influence their mental and physical health. This study compares physical health indicators of youth with currently and formerly incarcerated parents with youth with no history of parental incarceration. Using cross-sectional data from the 2016 Minnesota Student Survey (MSS), this secondary data analysis examined behavioral indicators of physical health among 8th, 9th, and 11th grade students (N = 119,029). Self-reported behavioral indicators of physical activity, fruit and vegetable consumption, fast food consumption, sugar-sweetened beverage consumption, and sleep were assessed. We also included a measure of perceived overall health. Logistic regression models controlling for demographic characteristics compared youth with currently and formerly incarcerated parents to youth with no history of parental incarceration. As predicted, parental incarceration was significantly associated with lower levels of healthy behaviors and higher levels of unhealthy behaviors. Contrary to expectations, youth with currently incarcerated parents did not differ significantly from youth with formerly incarcerated parents. Parental incarceration was associated with youth engagement in health risk behaviors, even if the parent was not currently incarcerated. These results suggest parental incarceration is associated with poor health behaviors that have implications for future health, and emphasizes the need for practitioners and policymakers to focus on interventions for this high-risk group of children and their families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Children of incarcerated parents: Development of externalizing behaviors across adolescence

Increasingly, “children of incarcerated parents” is becoming the label to describe a growing number of children with a history of parental incarceration. However, while these children and families frequently experience a variety of challenges, the web of interacting influences they face is complex. This variation makes it difficult to understand the effects of parental incarceration on children over time as well as to find solutions that help promote positive youth development for children impacted by parental incarceration. The current study uses latent growth curve (LGC) modeling to examine if parental incarceration during childhood predicts a higher initial level of externalizing behaviors by children in late childhood as well as the persistence and growth of these behaviors across adolescence. The analyses controlled for the influence of covariates that research has demonstrated are predictive of externalizing behaviors, including SES, gender, academic achievement, parental depression, and parent-child relationship quality. When controlling for the covariates, parental incarceration was not significantly related to child externalizing behaviors at baseline. However, parental incarceration was the sole predictor of an increase in externalizing problems over time. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

Health Care Use and Health Behaviors Among Young Adults With History of Parental Incarceration.

To determine if longitudinal associations exist between parental incarceration (PI) and health care use or health behaviors among a national sample of young adults. We used the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health to examine associations between history of mother incarceration (MI) and father incarceration (FI), health care use, and 3 dimensions of health behaviors (eg, general health behaviors, substance use, and other risky behaviors) (N = 13 084). Multivariable logistic regression models accounted for individual, family, and geographic factors and generated adjusted odds ratios (aORs). Over 10% of the sample had a history of PI before the age of 18. History of MI and FI were both associated with forgone health care (aOR = 1.65 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.20-2.27], aOR = 1.22 [95% CI, 1.02-1.47], respectively), prescription drug abuse (MI aOR = 1.61 [95% CI, 1.02-2.55], FI aOR = 1.46 [95% CI, 1.20-1.79]), and 10 or more lifetime sexual partners (MI aOR = 1.55 [95% CI, 1.08-2.22], FI aOR = 1.19 [95% CI, 1.01-1.41]). MI was associated with higher likelihood of emergency department use (aOR = 2.36 [95% CI, 1.51-3.68]), and FI was associated with illicit injection drug use (aOR = 2.54 [95% CI, 1.27-5.12]). The effects of incarceration extend beyond incarcerated individuals. PI histories are associated with lower health care use and unhealthy behaviors in young adulthood. By addressing barriers to health care and health-harming behaviors, health care providers and policy makers may reduce health disparities among this population.

Responding to Parental Incarceration As a Priority Pediatric Health Issue.

In the article “Health Care Use and Health Behaviors Among Young Adults with History of Parental Incarceration,” Heard-Garris et al1 use the nationally representative longitudinal survey “Add Health” to demonstrate strong associations between parental incarceration before age 18 years and higher rates of forgone health care and unhealthy behaviors in early adulthood (ages 25–32 years). This work is valuable given the scope of parental incarceration and the social vulnerabilities of many justice-involved families. Overall, >2.7 million US children (1 in 28; roughly 1 per school classroom or dozens per general pediatrician’s average panel) have a parent who is currently incarcerated.2 For African American children, the proportion is 1 in 9.2 On any given day, approximately one-half of federal and state prisoners are parents of children <18 years of age.3 Moreover, parental incarceration is disproportionately high among poor children, and for immigrant children, concomitant parent status concerns may dramatically heighten risks.2Given the limitations of the data set, there is a lack of clarity on the precise mechanisms linking parents’ incarceration with their children’s worsening long-term health and higher rates of forgone care. The authors speculate that mechanisms may relate to disruptions in a child’s family unit. These disruptions may result in both direct psychological damage and indirect damage through the overburdening of other caregivers, financial stress, and the learned mistrust of systems (including health systems) that foster a lifelong pattern of higher-risk behaviors and weaker engagement in care. These pathways, although plausible, need to be examined. What also needs to be examined is how parental incarceration may both overlap with and be distinct from other types of family separation, including parent death, parent divorce, child protective services involvement, parent deportation, or inhumane border policies.Findings that reveal differential effects of maternal versus paternal incarceration are novel and intriguing. Some of the observed differences, as the authors postulate, may be related to a lack of statistical power in the maternal incarceration group. However, other differences, such as the observed strong association between maternal incarceration and higher rates of exchanging sex for money during adulthood, reveal that some effects may be unique to mothers. Although the mechanisms for these differences are unclear, they suggest that parental incarceration may impact youth differently depending on parent sex.Given the observed associations, what should be done next? First, pediatric clinicians should screen for parental incarceration either separately or as part of a typical adverse childhood experience screener. Moreover, simply asking about parental incarceration may signal that the clinician is open to questions and requests for referrals, such as for mental health therapy, for children or caregivers who are having difficulty coping. Second, several tools exist that may aid clinicians in caring for children of incarcerated parents. For example, the creators of Sesame Street developed the Muppet character Alex to help children understand why daddy or mommy go away for a long time; the Sesame Street Web site also contains a tool kit for clinicians.4 Pediatricians can also refer families to social support services and resources such as the nonprofit Essie Justice Group, an organization that networks and supports women with incarcerated loved ones.5Policy strategies entail minimizing the negative impact of parental separation and, as stated by the study authors, promoting steps toward deincarceration. Approaches such as the Formerly Incarcerated Reenter Society Transformed Safely Transitioning Every Person Act, which was passed in the US House of Representatives in May 2018, call for federal prisoners to be placed within 500 miles of their families.6 Although legislation such as this might decrease the negative impact of family separation by keeping families geographically closer, clearly, much more needs to be done. Deincarceration, which is aimed at diverting less serious offenses away from confinement and, when appropriate, into nonjustice sectors (eg, health services for charges related to substance use or mental illness), is perhaps the most important step. Community-based sentencing alternatives can allow for parental rehabilitation and accountability while keeping families together; for example, parents can attend court-ordered drug treatment and vocational programs while living at home.7In many respects, when a parent is incarcerated, the entire family serves the sentence. The field of pediatrics must adapt accordingly, with much greater responsibility and urgency than it has to this point. Mitigating the negative impacts of parental incarceration (both by supporting the youth and their families and by direct advocacy to reverse mass incarceration and its negative effects) can reduce health disparities and improve health outcomes for vulnerable youth who, without help, may become vulnerable adults who underutilize needed care. The study in this month’s issue is an important reminder that parental incarceration and broader issues of family separation are pediatric problems that require pediatric solutions.

Mental health of adolescents with currently and formerly incarcerated parents

Reliable information about children of incarcerated people is difficult to obtain, and major gaps exist in our understanding of their well-being. This study aims to determine whether adolescents with incarcerated parents report higher levels of mental health problems than those without an incarcerated parent, and whether the relationship between parental incarceration and adolescent mental health is moderated by parent-child relationships. Using a statewide survey from one US state, we compared adolescents with a currently incarcerated parent to those with a formerly incarcerated parent and those with no history of parental incarceration on self-reported indicators of mental health, and examined whether strong parent-child relationships were protective against mental health concerns. Results indicate that adolescents with incarcerated parents are at elevated risk for mental health problems, and strong parent-child relationships partially buffer children from risk. Findings underscore the need for more investment in effective early interventions for adolescents in highly adverse contexts.

Sex, Parental Incarceration, and Violence Perpetration Among a Sample of Young Adults.

Limited attention has been directed at adult children with a history of parental incarceration. The goal of the current study is to expand our understanding of the gendered effects of imprisonment on the adult offspring of incarcerated parents through the exploration of violence perpetration among a sample of young adults. Congruent with problem behavior theory, it is hypothesized that young adults who have been affected by parental incarceration will report greater aversive outcomes (i.e., more risk factors and violence perpetration) than their peers without a history of parental incarceration. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that parental incarceration predicts violent perpetration even after controlling for individual and familial risk factors and demographic characteristics. A series of bivariate and multivariate statistical models utilizing self-report data from 534 college students were generated to test said hypotheses. In addition, the moderating effects of students' sex and exposure to parental incarceration on the relationship between violence perpetration and risk factors were explored through the utilization of split logistic regression models. Roughly 1 in 10 (13.3%) students surveyed had experienced parental incarceration. As expected, students affected by parental incarceration were significantly more likely to perpetrate violence than their peers not affected by parental incarceration, net individual and familial risk. Although only a small percentage of students had experienced the imprisonment of a parent, parental incarceration predicted violence perpetration in young adulthood. These findings highlight the need to explore the long-lasting effects of parental incarceration on prisoners' offspring across the life course.

Parental Incarceration as a Risk Factor for Children in Homeless Families.

The current study aimed to describe the prevalence of children of incarcerated parents (COIP) in a sample of homeless/highly mobile children, examine the relationship between parental incarceration and other risk factors, and investigate the effect of parental incarceration on child academic and mental health outcomes. The authors compared COIP (n = 45) to children whose parents were never incarcerated (n = 93) within a sample of 138, 4- to 7-year-old ethnically diverse children residing in emergency homeless shelters. Children's caregivers provided information about children's history of parental incarceration and other family experiences. Children's teachers reported academic and mental health outcomes in the subsequent school year. Compared to children with no history of parental incarceration, COIP experienced more negative life events. Regression models revealed that a history of parental incarceration was a significant predictor of teacher-reported internalizing problems. These results have implications for the identification and treatment of the highest risk homeless/highly mobile children.

Promoting Educational Resiliency in Youth with Incarcerated Parents: The Impact of Parental Incarceration, School Characteristics, and Connectedness on School Outcomes.

The United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world, and as a result, one of the largest populations of incarcerated parents. Growing evidence suggests that the incarceration of a parent may be associated with a number of risk factors in adolescence, including school drop out. Taking a developmental ecological approach, this study used multilevel modeling to examine the association of parental incarceration on truancy, academic achievement, and lifetime educational attainment using the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (48.3% female; 46% minority status). Individual characteristics, such as school and family connectedness, and school characteristics, such as school size and mental health services, were examined to determine whether they significantly reduced the risk associated with parental incarceration. Our results revealed small but significant risks associated with parental incarceration for all outcomes, above and beyond individual and school level characteristics. Family and school connectedness were identified as potential compensatory factors, regardless of parental incarceration history, for academic achievement and truancy. School connectedness did not reduce the risk associated with parental incarceration when examining highest level of education. This study describes the school related risks associated with parental incarceration, while revealing potential areas for school-based prevention and intervention for adolescents.

The Impact of Parental Incarceration on the Physical and Mental Health of Young Adults

We investigated the relationship between parental incarceration history and young adult physical and mental health outcomes using Wave 1 and Wave 4 data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Dependent variables included self-reported fair/poor health and health diagnoses. The independent variable was parental incarceration history. Cross-tabulations and logistic regression models were run. Positive, significant associations were found between parental incarceration and 8 of 16 health problems (depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, cholesterol, asthma, migraines, HIV/AIDS, and fair/poor health) in adjusted logistic regression models. Those who reported paternal incarceration had increased odds of 8 mental and physical health problems, whereas those who reported maternal incarceration had increased odds of depression. For paternal incarceration, with the exception of HIV/AIDS, larger associations were found for mental health (odds ratios range 1.43-1.72) as compared with physical health (odds ratios range 1.26-1.31) problems. The association between paternal incarceration and HIV/AIDs should be interpreted with caution because of the low sample prevalence of HIV/AIDs. This study suggests exposure to parental incarceration in childhood is associated with health problems in young adulthood. Extant literature suggests underlying mechanisms that link parental incarceration history to poor outcomes in offspring may include the lack of safe, stable, nurturing relationships and exposure to violence. To prevent poor health in offspring of the incarcerated, additional studies are needed to (1) confirm the aforementioned associations and (2) assess whether adverse experiences and violence exposure in childhood mediate the relationship between parental incarceration history and offspring health problems.

Second-Generation Prisoners

The authors investigated whether prisoners who had a parent in prison, “second-generation prisoners,” had poorer rates of adjustment compared to those inmates who did not report a history of parental incarceration. Among a sample of 459 men and women in prison, approximately half reported having had a parent in prison or jail. There was considerable self-reported childhood adversity within the entire sample, with relatively higher levels reported by the second-generation prisoner group. Second-generation prisoners self-reported more anger and prison violence and demonstrated a greater presence of institutional rule breaking in comparison to first-generation prisoners. Results were maintained after statistical control for the high rates of adversities in childhood. Post hoc analysis revealed differences on adjustment variables between first-generation prisoners and individuals with a mother incarcerated or with both parents incarcerated, suggesting the pronounced impact of maternal incarceration on long-term well-being. Results indicate that the negative effects of parental incarceration are evident within the prison community and have a significant relationship to inmates’ adjustment while incarcerated.

Parental Incarceration and Multiple Risk Experiences: Effects on Family Dynamics and Children’s Delinquency

Children of incarcerated parents are exposed to factors that place them at risk for delinquency. Few studies have examined the effects of having an incarcerated parent after controlling for other experiences such as contextual risk factors and family processes. Past studies have also not examined effects of recent, but not current, parental incarceration on children. The present study examines an archival dataset, in which children aged 10-14 years and their parents/guardians reported children's risk experiences (e.g., exposure to poverty, parental substance use), family processes (e.g., level of family victimization, family conflict), and children's delinquent behaviors at two time points. Parents also reported their recent and past incarceration history. Hierarchical linear regression analyses show that a history of parental incarceration predicted family victimization, delinquent behaviors of children's older siblings, and delinquent behaviors of the child participants, over and above children's demographic characteristics and other risk experiences. Recent parental incarceration predicted family conflict, family victimization, and parent-reports of children's delinquency after also controlling for previous parental incarceration. The role of family processes in research and intervention directions involving children of incarcerated parents is discussed.

Differences in Parenting Attributes, Experiences, and Behaviors of Delinquent Youth with and without a Parental History of Incarceration

This study examined attributes of parenting that are associated with juvenile delinquency and the related differential life experiences of youth with and without a parental incarceration history. Among 1,112 juveniles, 31% had a parental history of incarceration. Bivariate analysis indicated support for three hypotheses: (a) parents who have experienced incarceration will exhibit lower levels of effective parenting and greater association with factors that can impede their parenting abilities, namely substance abuse and mental illness; (b) youth who have parents with an incarceration history will be more likely to have experienced negative effects of ineffective parenting, namely abuse and out of home placement; and (c) youth with a parental incarceration history will have longer and more serious delinquent histories of their own. Through binary logistic regression analysis, support was not found for the fourth hypothesis that history of parental incarceration predicts delinquent behavior.

Parental Incarceration Among Adolescents Receiving Mental Health Services

The Bureau of Justice Statistics estimates that approximately 1 in every 50 youth in the U.S. had a parent in State or Federal prison in 1999. Studies of children of incarcerated parents suggest that these youth are at risk for experiencing emotional and behavioral problems. Using a sample of 258 adolescents receiving routine mental health services, this study explored: (1) differences in demographic characteristics, lifetime exposure to risk factors, recent stressful life experiences, and clinical profiles of adolescents with and without a history of parental incarceration; and (2) the effect of parental incarceration relative to other risk factors on levels of emotional and behavioral problems and treatment outcomes. Nearly half (43%) of the youth studied had experienced the incarceration of one or both parents. Youth who experienced parental incarceration had been exposed to significantly more risk factors during their lifetimes including parental substance abuse, extreme poverty, and abuse or neglect. They were more likely than other treated youth to present with attention-deficit/hyperactivity and conduct disorders and less likely to have major depression. Findings provide preliminary evidence that parental incarceration may have a discrete negative effect on certain outcomes of treatment.

Characteristics of children whose parents have been incarcerated.

The study sought to determine the relationship between parental incarceration and behavioral and family characteristics among children in a day hospital. Chi square analysis and t tests were used to compare preadmission characteristics and teachers' behavioral ratings of a group of 16 children in a day hospital setting who had experienced the incarceration of one or both parents and a group of 21 children in that setting who had no history of parental incarceration. Children in the parental incarceration group were significantly more likely to have experienced parental substance abuse than those whose parents had not been incarcerated. A history of child abuse or maltreatment appeared to be more likely among the parental incarceration group. Boys whose fathers had been incarcerated received higher teacher ratings of delinquent and aggressive behavior. Paternal incarceration among girls was associated with a significant increase in attention problems. A history of parental incarceration may be quite common in some mental health samples of children. It appears to be associated with severe family dysfunction and behavioral disorders.