Parental Coresidence Research Articles

Slow to launch: Young men's parental coresidence and employment outcomes

AbstractObjectiveThe authors investigate the potential early career consequences of parental coresidence for young men and whether they vary by duration of coresidence.BackgroundYoung adult coresidence with parents is becoming more common, particularly since the Great Recession and the recent pandemic. Although many studies have investigated the factors that predict coresidence, few examine the consequences. Some prior research suggests that coresidence may directly reduce career opportunities and indirectly shape employment through its effects on mental health and family formation. Yet, the consequences may be milder if coresidence is short‐term.MethodUsing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, the authors examine the associations between parental coresidence after the age of 24 and employment status (n = 3915) and occupational standing (n = 3613) for young men in their early 30s in the United States. They explore how this association varies by the duration of coresidence, testing several model specifications and controlling for factors that select young men into parental coresidence.ResultsShort‐term coresidence of about 1 year is marginally associated with an improved likelihood of full‐time employment, but longer‐term parental coresidence of 4 to 6 years is negatively associated with occupational standing.ConclusionParental coresidence may be beneficial for young men in their peak ages of career growth if it is only for a few years. However, just as long‐term unemployment can have a scarring effect on employment outcomes, long‐term parental coresidence might negatively impact career growth.

Diversity and change in Filipino households, 1990–2015

ABSTRACT Using census and survey data, this study documents the changes in household size and structure in the Philippines from 1990 to 2015 and explores how demographic and socioeconomic factors have played a role in these changes. It also describes the living arrangements of Filipino children and young adults, recently married young women, and older people, to examine how demographic and socioeconomic factors modify the immediate social environment of Filipinos across their life course. Results show that contrary to the predictions of the modernisation hypothesis, the share of nuclear households in the Philippines declined, while the proportion of extended households remained stable over time. In addition, most Filipino children still live with both parents. However, the proportion in this arrangement declined recently, while the share who live with a single parent or neither parent increased. There is also a prolonged parental co-residence after marriage, as evidenced by the higher proportion of newly married women living with their parents or parents-in-law compared to women in the past. Finally, living with children is still very common among older Filipinos, but the share who do so has dropped sharply. In contrast, the proportions living alone or with a spouse only have increased over time.

Precarious Transitions: How Precarious Employment Shapes Parental Coresidence among Young Adults

Abstract The rise of precarious work generates important questions about how this mode of employment might affect young workers’ transition to adulthood, particularly their decision to live independently. Existing demographic literature has considered the impact of unemployment on parental coresidence but overlooked the potential influence of precarious employment. Yet, features of precarious employment might matter for young adults’ residential arrangements. Our paper provides a theoretical framework linking precarious work to parental coresidence. Specifically, we outline three mechanisms that underlie this relationship: low pay, meager benefits, and short job tenure. Using longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth from 2005 to 2017, we provide empirical support for our model. We found that precariously employed young adults are more likely than their peers in standard jobs to live with their parents. About a third of this effect can be accounted for by the three theorized mechanisms. Our research contributes to the growing literature demonstrating the impact of economic insecurity on the workplace and family, the two essential arenas of social life.

Parental co-residence and young adults' mental health.

The growing trend towards young adults staying in the parental home has garnered much recent scholarly interest. However, less is known about which young adults are living at home, and the impacts this has over young adults' lives. Using The Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) dataset, this study examines the profiles of co-residing young adults and how these have changed over the first two decades of the 21st century. It then analyses the associations between co-residence and young adults' mental health, applying a propensity score modelling approach to determine differences in mental health between young adults living at home and their counterparts living independently. Results indicate that rates of co-residence have increased over the 2000s, most steeply amongst those residing outside of major cities (by 46%), older adults (by 36%), females (by 28%), and low-income groups (by 10%). Findings show a significant negative association between co-residence and mental health (a 4-point difference on the 100-point scale, 95% CI -5.93, -2.14). However, the greatest differential in mental health between co-resident and independent young adults is observed amongst those for whom rates of co-residence have increased most dramatically, i.e., females and older adults (a 6-point difference in mental health) and residents of regional and rural areas (a 5-point difference in mental health). We situate this discussion in the context of intensifying housing market constraints, considering how the transformation of the Australian housing system into a vehicle for wealth accumulation has generated barriers to residential independence.

How Does Religion Influence Parental Support of Young Adult Children?

Religion is an important cultural institution that shapes family ideologies and behaviors. Although previous research has documented religious differences in parenting behaviors and parent–child relationships in adolescence, how religion influences parental support of young adult children is not clear. Using data from the Transition into Adulthood Supplement (TAS) of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID, 2005–2017; N = 9,754 person-years), we employed mixed-effect logistic and linear regression models to examine the impacts of young adults’ religious affiliation, religious salience, and parent–child religious concordance on parental coresidence and financial support. The results show that mainline Protestant and Catholic young adults are more likely than nonreligious youth to live with their parents. Catholic and Jewish young adults receive more financial support from their parents than nonreligious youth did when they are religiously concordant with their mother. The associations between religious affiliation and parental support are strengthened by young adults’ religious salience and religious concordance with their mother.

Leisure-time and study-time Internet use and dietary risk factors in Korean adolescents

Prolonged screen time is associated with an increased risk of obesity in adolescents. However, little is known about whether Internet use is also associated with dietary risk factors including consumption of obesogenic foods. In this study, we examined the associations of leisure-time and study-time Internet use with dietary risk factors in Korean adolescents using nationally representative survey data. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis among 54,416 middle and high school students in the Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey 2015. Participants were asked to report the average duration of leisure-time and study-time Internet use, days of skipping breakfast, and frequency of fruit, vegetable, instant noodle, fast-food, chip/cracker, and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intakes. We performed multivariable logistic regression to estimate ORs and 95% CIs for the relations between duration of Internet use and dietary risk factors, accounting for complex survey sampling and adjusting for potential confounders. Prolonged leisure-time Internet use (≥241 compared with 1-60min/d) was associated with higher prevalence of frequent skipping breakfast (OR: 1.39; 95% CI: 1.29, 1.49), low intakes of fruits (OR: 1.27; 95% CI: 1.18, 1.36) and vegetables (OR: 1.43; 95% CI: 1.33, 1.55), and high intakes of instant noodles (OR: 1.87; 95% CI: 1.74, 2.02), fast-food (OR: 1.63; 95% CI: 1.49, 1.78), chips/crackers (OR: 1.37; 95% CI: 1.24, 1.52), and SSBs (OR: 1.63; 95% CI: 1.52, 1.75). Prolonged study-time Internet use (≥121 compared with 1-60min/d) was inversely associated with prevalence of low fruit (OR: 0.94; 95% CI: 0.88, 1.00) and vegetable (OR: 0.91; 95% CI: 0.85, 0.98) intakes but was positively associated with high intakes of instant noodles (OR: 1.10; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.19) and chips/crackers (OR: 1.13; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.23). The overall associations remained consistent in analyses stratified by sex, grade, region, parental co-residence, perceived household income, perceived stress level, physical activity, and obesity status. Our data suggest that prolonged Internet use, particularly during leisure time, is associated with less healthful dietary behaviors in Korean adolescents.

The parental home as labor market insurance for young Greeks during the Great Recession

AbstractLabor market conditions in Greece have severely deteriorated during the crisis, affecting youths the most. Using the Greek crisis as a case-study, this paper examines the role of the family as a social safety net for its young members. Specifically, we test the relationship between youth labor outcomes and parental co-residence, whether this relationship has become stronger during the crisis, and the degree to which the relationship is causal. Our results confirm that the parental home is a refuge both for jobless youth and for those in poorly paid, insecure jobs, and this role has intensified during the crisis. We find no reverse causality between co-residence and employment status for young men, and significant reverse causality for women. This finding implies that all youths live in the parental home when they are in need themselves, but it is young women not men who live with parents when parents are in need or for cultural reasons.

Explaining the Decline in Young Adult Sexual Activity in the United States

AbstractObjectiveThe main goal of this study is to identify the causes of the decline in sexual activity among young adults in the United States.BackgroundThe frequency with which young adults have sexual intercourse has declined over recent decades, but the sources of this trend are not well understood. Trends in economic insecurity, relationship formation, parental coresidence, use of electronic media, psychological distress, and alcohol consumption have all been suggested as possible causes.MethodLogistic regression models of recent sexual activity were estimated using longitudinal data from the Transition to Adulthood Supplement of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics for respondents ages 18 to 23 (n = 3,213) spanning 2007 to 2017. Mediation analysis was performed to identify the explanatory factors that account for the decline in sexual activity. Fixed‐effect logistic regression models were estimated for a subset of respondents (n = 655) to help identify causal effects.ResultsOf the possible explanations considered, the decline in the formation of romantic relationships and decreasing alcohol consumption are the most important, but declining earnings and increasing use of computer games also play important roles. Overall, the measured explanations explain three‐quarters of the decline in young adult sexual activity. Within individuals, forming a romantic relationship, going to college, and alcohol consumption likely have causal effects on the probability of engaging in sexual intercourse.ConclusionTrends in the formation of romantic relationships, alcohol consumption, computer gaming, and earnings explain a substantial portion of the decline in young adult sexual activity.

The comforts of home: The association between coresidence with parents and young adults' residential mobility and migration in the United States

AbstractThis study uses data from the 2005 through 2015 waves of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics' Transition to Adulthood supplement to examine the association between young adults' living arrangements and their likelihood of moving. Compared with young adults who live with their parents, young adults who live independently are about twice as likely to move within a state, and four times as likely to move between states, over a biennial period. The negative association between parental coresidence and residential movement is stronger for young men than for young women and for Hispanics than for non‐Hispanic Whites. Increases in parental coresidence explain 70% of the decline in young adults' odds of making an intrastate move, and almost one third of the decline in the odds of making an interstate move, between 2005 and 2015.

Explaining the Increase in Young Adults Living with Parents

:In recent years, a rising proportion of young adults living with their parents has garnered national attention. Even young adults between the ages of twenty-five to thirty-four have not been immune to this trend. This article explores the causes behind the rising parental co-residence over the past thirty-five years using macro data. The article shows that rents have far outstripped incomes for young adults and that increasing unaffordability of renting is a significant factor behind the rising proportion of young adults living with their parents. Although declining interest rates have mitigated rising home prices thereby increasing home affordability, they have not impacted rental affordability.

Cultural Preferences or Financial Constraints? Understanding Racial and Ethnic Differences in Family Attitudes and Parental Coresidence in Young Adulthood

Establishing an independent household is a key marker of adulthood. Yet, the proportion of young adults who remain in the natal home has increased, with large variations across racial and ethnic groups. We test the role of cultural preferences versus financial constraints in accounting for variation in coresidence by examining young adults’ and parents’ family attitudes in conjunction with measures of financial resources. Using longitudinal data, we explore parents’ and children’s family attitudes when youth are in high school and their relationship to youths’ coresidence behavior a decade later. Though attitudes about family vary by race and ethnicity, these attitudes shape young adult living arrangements in White families and are not just influential among Latinx and Asian families. This highlights the relevance of parents’ views for the transition to adulthood and refocuses attention on the ways that financial constraints in young adulthood drive racial and ethnic differences in living arrangements.

Boomerang bias: Examining the effect of parental coresidence on Millennial financial behavior

AbstractMillennials, or those born between 1980 and 1998, face unique financial situations relative to the general population. With increasing levels of educational loans and debt, many choose to live with their parents as a means of financial support, thus resulting in differing financial behaviors when compared to Millennials who live independently. This paper analyzes the effect of parental coresidence on debt, asset ownership, and asset values. We find evidence linking parental coresidence with decreases in magnitude and likelihood of having debt, along with significant differences in “risky” and “safe” asset ownership and valuations. Moreover, we find causal evidence that parental coresidence is used as a mechanism to decrease general debt.

Parental Coresidence, Young Adult Role, Economic, and Health Changes, and Psychological Well-being

Despite recent concern surrounding increases in parental coresidence during young adulthood, questions about the relationship between this demographic shift and the well-being of young adults have received little scholarly attention. This paper uses survey data from National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) to examine the relationship between parental coresidence transitions and depressive symptoms as well as whether these patterns are contingent on changes in economic resources, self-rated health, and transitions surrounding college graduation, work, marriage, and parenthood. The analyses reveal that those returning to a parental home after experiencing residential independence report an increase in depressive symptoms relative to their stably independent peers, even after accounting for other mental health–linked changes that predict these residential patterns and evaluations of relationships with parents. The findings highlight the implications of the trend toward parental coresidence for current young adults’ mental health.

Returning to the nest: Debt and parental co-residence among young adults

In standard life-cycle models, borrowing enables young adults to smooth consumption, but for those who are indebted and face high borrowing costs, parental co-residence could serve as an alternative smoothing mechanism. Using panel data derived from credit reports, we begin by documenting an association between debt characteristics – including credit risk, delinquency and loan balances on student loans, auto loans and credit cards – and subsequent entry into, and durations in parental co-residence. We find relationships consistent with parental co-residence as a smoothing mechanism for young adults facing borrowing constraints. We then formally test the hypothesis that credit accessibility affects co-residence choice by analyzing plausibly exogenous reductions in credit card limits initiated by banks during the Great Recession. We find that young adults who experienced limit reductions were 5% more likely to enter co-residence, and stayed 4% longer in co-residence. The effects of credit limit reductions were larger for young adult borrowers who were closer to their credit limit before the reduction.

Returning to the Nest: Debt and Parental Co-Residence Among Young Adults

Abstract In standard life-cycle models, borrowing enables young adults to smooth consumption, but for those who are indebted and face high borrowing costs, parental co-residence could serve as an alternative smoothing mechanism. Using panel data derived from credit reports, we begin by documenting an association between debt characteristics – including credit risk, delinquency and loan balances on student loans, auto loans and credit cards – and subsequent entry into, and durations in parental co-residence. We find relationships consistent with parental co-residence as a smoothing mechanism for young adults facing borrowing constraints. We then formally test the hypothesis that credit accessibility affects co-residence choice by analyzing plausibly exogenous reductions in credit card limits initiated by banks during the Great Recession. We find that young adults who experienced limit reductions were 5% more likely to enter co-residence, and stayed 4% longer in co-residence. The effects of credit limit reductions were larger for young adult borrowers who were closer to their credit limit before the reduction.

The Impact of Employment on Parental Coresidence

AbstractWe examine the extent to which parents use housing and shared living arrangements as a form of risk‐sharing for their adult children, using detailed data on children and parents in the Health and Retirement Study for 1998–2012. On average, a young man moving from full‐time to nonemployment raises the likelihood of coresiding with a parent by 1.5 percentage points; moving from full‐time employment to being part‐time employed raises the likelihood of coresiding with a parent by 2 percentage points. The implied elasticity of parental coresidence with respect to the son's income is ‐1.1; for daughters, the elasticity is ‐0.5.

Parental co-residence, shared living and emerging adulthood in Europe: semi-dependent housing across welfare regime and housing system contexts

ABSTRACTTransitions to adulthood not only represent a key period for individual development but also contribute to processes of social stratification. Growing evidence has pointed to increased complexity, postponement and individualization in transition dynamics. Previous research has focused on trends in school-to-work transitions and family formation; however, the central role of housing represents an interrelated process that is less understood. As pathways to adulthood have diversified, many young people experience partial independence in one sphere while continued dependence in others. Semi-dependent housing, either through parental co-residence or shared living, can be an important coping mechanism. Using the European Survey on Income and Living Conditionst, the research investigates the role that semi-dependent living plays within emerging adulthood across varied European contexts. The data suggests that the extent and type of semi-dependent housing varies substantially across EU15 countries. The findings indicate that levels of housing independence can be partly explained by welfare regime context while the propensity for shared living appears correlated with affordability in the rental market. Although socio-cultural and economic trends play an important and interrelated role, the study argues that housing dynamics of young adulthood and the role of semi-dependent living is fundamentally shaped by the context of the housing system and welfare regime.

LIVING WITH PARENTS AND EMERGING ADULTS' DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS.

Whether moving back home after a period of economic independence, or having never moved out, the share of emerging adults living with parents is increasing. Yet little is known about the associations of coresidence patterns and rationales for coresidence for emerging adult well-being. Using the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study (n = 891), we analyzed depressive symptoms among emerging adults who (1) never left the parental home; (2) returned to the parental home; and (3) were not currently living with a parent. About one-fifth of emerging adults had boomeranged or moved back in with their parents. Among those living with parents, nearly two-fifths had boomeranged or returned to their parental home and they reported significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms. Among coresident emerging adults, both intrinsic and utilitarian motivations (i.e., enjoy living with parents and employment problems) partially mediated the association between coresidence and depressive symptoms. Returning to the parental home was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms only among emerging adults experiencing employment problems. These findings are especially relevant because the recession hit emerging adults particularly hard. The ability to distinguish boomerang emerging adults and emerging adults who have never left home provides a more nuanced understanding of parental coresidence during this phase of the life course.

Why Boomerang? Debt, Access to Credit, and Parental Co-residence among Young Adults

A persistent media narrative from the Great Recession is the phenomenon of "boomerang" kids, that is, the rapid increase of young adults moving back in with their baby boomer parents. From a life-cycle perspective, boomerang kids may be delaying wealth-building, and they may be a strain on parental resources. From a macroeconomic perspective, increased rates of parental co-residence have important implications for the economy at large. In this note, we describe our research examining the relationship between debt, access to affordable credit and parental co-residence decisions among young adults.

Economic conditions and the living arrangements of young adults: 1960 to 2011

The recent economic downturn in the USA has coincided with stories of young men and women choosing to remain at home, or to move back in with their parents since they cannot afford to live independently. This paper first describes changes in parental coresidence over the last half-century, and then assesses the causal link between economic conditions and living arrangements among young adults using data on more than 15 million individuals from 1960 to 2011. Comparing changes in economic conditions across US states to changes in living arrangements, I find that fewer jobs, low wages, and high rental costs all lead to increases in the numbers of men and women living with their parents. The magnitudes of the effects are quite large: for men, I estimate that changes in economic factors alone are large enough to have caused the observed changes in parental coresidence between 1970 and 2011.