Paratelic Dominance Research Articles

Motivational State Does Not Affect All-Out Short Duration Exercise Performance

Introduction: The preferred motivational state (telic or paratelic), i.e., dominance, has been linked to the type of activity sports people participate in. As such, positive or negative performance may occur if there is a mismatch between the activity and the required state. This study set out to examine the effects of altering telic or paratelic motivational states and thus induce the “misfit effect” in order to quantify the influences on emotions and performance during allout, short duration cycle performance. Methods: Based on paratelic dominance scale (PDS) scores participants completed the Wingate anaerobic test (WAT) on two separate occasions in their preferred and non-preferred motivational state. Special video display method was used to manipulate participants to their non-preferred motivational state and verified via the telic state measure (TSM) test prior to performing the Wingate test (WT). Changes in emotion and stress levels were recorded using the tension and effort stress inventory (TESI) along with heart rate variability (HRV) data obtained from electrocardiogram (ECG). Peak power (PP), mean power (MP) and fatigue index (FI) obtained from the WT were used to assess all-out athletic performance. Results: The main findings show that there was no link between dominant motivational state and anaerobic cycle performance (p>0.05) and that successful manipulation of motivational state (p<0.05) did not influence perceived levels or physiological levels of stress (p>0.05) and did not affect all-out, short duration cycle performance (p<0.05). Conclusion: As such, coaches, support staff and athletes do not have to worry about a particular state in regards to telic or paratelic in an acute time frame, as long as the athlete’s arousal levels and emotional conditions are optimal.

Motivational State and Personality in Relation to Emotion, Stress, and HRV Responses to Aerobic Exercise

Abstract. This study examined emotion, stress, and performance during aerobic exercise performed in the telic and paratelic states, in relation to telic and paratelic dominance. The study tested the misfit effect and is the first to examine heart rate variability (HRV) responses to exercise in relation to both personality and motivational state. Based on their Paratelic Dominance Scale scores, participants identified as telic dominant (TD) and paratelic dominant (PD) completed ramp tests following telic and paratelic state manipulations (repeated measures). In each condition, participants watched “serious” (telic) or “playful” (paratelic) videos for 10 min, then performed a ramp test on a cycle ergometer while continuing to watch the videos throughout the entire protocol. Motivational state (telic/paratelic), HRV, emotion, and stress levels were measured at baseline, pre, post, and 15 min post-ramp test. Time to exhaustion was measured as an index of performance. Limited support was obtained for the misfit effect as interactions between state and dominance were not revealed for any of the variables with the exception of low frequent (LF) and the low frequent/high frequent ratio (LF/HF % normalized), which can be interpreted as indicating that both groups were more relaxed in their preferred state condition. Regardless, findings offer useful insight into methodological considerations for similar studies, such as consideration of the moderating effects of exercise characteristics. Our findings also confirm a number of reversal theory ( Apter, 1982 ) proposals including the concept of dominance as an individual difference factor, with varying characteristics of different dominances, based on physiological response variables. We recommend continued research into the misfit effect with larger samples, and designs that accommodate the methodological considerations raised by the present results.

English

Active living is imperative to maintaining good health, and becoming involved in regular exercise at a young age is fundamental. The purpose of this study was to examine motivation for exercise among university students in relation to metamotivational dominance and body esteem. Participants in this study were 106 undergraduate students who were recruited from their psychology departmental participant pool and from the campus exercise facility at a mediumsized Canadian university. Participants completed an inventory that included the Motivational Style Profile, Big Five Inventory-10, Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire, and the Body Weight and Image Self-Esteem Evaluation Questionnaire to assess personality, exercise motivation, and body esteem. High-frequency exercisers were found to be more paratelic dominant than low-frequency exercisers, and scored significantly higher on intrinsic, identified, and introjected regulation, indicating that they exercised for enjoyment, valued exercise outcomes, and wanted to avoid negative emotions associated with not exercising. Among highfrequency exercisers, positive body esteem was associated with high intrinsic and low extrinsic motivation for exercise, paratelic dominance, negativism dominance, and low neuroticism. For low-frequency exercisers, significant correlates of positive body esteem were autic mastery dominance, low BMI, low neuroticism, and lower levels of extrinsic and introjected motivation. Findings are discussed in terms of healthy and unhealthy motivations for exercise, and recommendations are made for tailoring health promotion strategies to metamotivational dominance.

Metamotivational state and dominance: Links with EMG gradients during isokinetic leg extension and a test of the misfit effect

Although electromyographic (EMG) gradients have been observed in passive musculature during perceptual motor tasks, it is unclear whether this is related to metamotivational state or dominance. In addition, a misfit effect has been suggested whereby individuals report negative psychological responses when metamotivational state and dominance do not match. Research examining these phenomena within an exercise context is limited; therefore, this study used a reversal theory (Apter, 2001) framework to examine two hypotheses. The first hypothesis was that an EMG gradient would be observed when individuals performed isokinetic leg extensions in a telic metamotivational state, regardless of telic or paratelic metamotivational dominance. Second, it was hypothesizsed that telic-dominant individuals and paratelic-dominant individuals would perform better on this task when in the telic and paratelic state, respectively. Altogether, 14 telic-dominant and 12 paratelic-dominant individuals performed 100 self-paced isokinetic leg extensions at a rate of 90° · s−1 in both telic and paratelic state manipulated conditions. Regardless of state, an EMG gradient was observed in telic-dominant individuals but not in paratelic-dominant individuals. Paratelic-dominant individuals performed better in the paratelic than the telic state condition, whereas in the telic state condition, telic-dominant individuals performed better than paratelic-dominant individuals. Findings add to the debate concerning the role of telic metamotivational state and dominance in the production of EMG gradients. Performance data support the misfit effect that outcomes are more positive when metamotivational state and dominance are congruent. Suggestions for research developments in this area are offered, as are tentative implications for applied practice.

Stress responses during aerobic exercise in relation to motivational dominance and state

We examined the hypothesis that congruence between motivational dominance and state results in optimal psychological responses and performance during exercise. Twenty participants (10 telic dominant and 10 paratelic dominant) rated their stress at 5 min intervals as they cycled on an ergometer at gas exchange threshold for 30 min in both telic and paratelic state manipulated conditions. Participants then performed a test to exhaustion at a resistance equivalent to 110% of [Vdot]O2max. The hypothesized interaction between condition and dominance was significant for internal tension stress, as paratelic dominants were more stressed than telic dominants when exercising in the telic state and telic dominants were more stressed than paratelic dominants when exercising in the paratelic state. Similarly, the condition×dominance interaction for internal stress discrepancy was significant, as paratelic dominants reported greater internal stress discrepancy exercising in the telic compared with the paratelic state. Findings are discussed in relation to the application of reversal theory for understanding stress responses during aerobic exercise.

Perceptual and cognitive responses during exercise: Relationships with metamotivational state and dominance

In this study, we examined ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and attentional focus during exercise in relation to telic and paratelic metamotivational dominance and state. Thirty regular exercisers (11 females, 19 males), of whom 10 were telic dominant (mean Paratelic Dominance Scale score=6.2±2.9), 10 paratelic dominant (mean PDS score=23.8±1.4), and 10 non-dominant (mean PDS score=15.4±0.7) completed two exercise trials. In the first trial, the participants completed a maximal ramped exercise test on a motorized treadmill to determine their gas exchange threshold (the speed at which determined exercise intensity of the subsequent trial). Throughout the second trial (a 30-min treadmill run), the participants reported their metamotivational state, RPE, and attentional focus (associative or dissociative) at 5-min intervals. Heart rate was recorded at 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and 28 min and expired air was analysed for oxygen consumption (VO2) between 1–3, 6–8, 11–13, 16–18, 21–23, and 26–28 min. There was no main effect of dominance or dominance×time interaction on any variables (P >0.05). Oxygen consumption did not differ between states but RPE was higher in the telic than paratelic state at 25 and 30 min (t 28=2.87, P <0.05; t 26.77=3.88, P <0.05, respectively). Attentional focus was more associative in the telic than paratelic state at 20, 25, and 30 min (t 28=− 3.73, P <0.05; t 28=− 4.85, P <0.01; t 28=− 5.15, P <0.05, respectively) and heart rate was higher at 23 min in the telic state (t 27=3.40, P <0.05). During the latter stages of exercise, the telic metamotivational state, not dominance, was related to a more associative attentional focus and higher RPE. Our results support the use of reversal theory (Apter, 2001) to understand perceptual and cognitive responses during aerobic exercise, but an experimental design in which state is manipulated is needed to examine the effects of metamotivational dominance and state on perceptual and cognitive responses.

Matches and mismatches between telic dominance and type of sport: Changes in emotions and stress pre- to post-performance

This study was intended to test the proposition that telic dominant individuals have a greater affinity and preference for endurance sports compared to paratelic dominant individuals who prefer explosive sports. The Telic Dominance Scale (TDS) was used to divide 66 university students into telic (high) and paratelic (low) dominance groups ( n = 33 in each group). The state version of the Tension and Effort Stress Inventory (TESI) was completed before and after participation in an endurance sport (long distance running) and an explosive sport (basketball). It was predicted that participation in a preferred sport would produce a higher level of positive response for each group. This prediction was not supported. Irrespective of the type of sport, participation consistently produced positive changes in emotional tone with significant increases in excitement and decreases in anxiety, boredom, sullenness, modesty, resentment, and guilt. Some differences were found between groups and between sports. The telic group had higher levels of pride, gratitude, and virtue. Placidity, somatic tension stress and effort stress were higher for running than basketball. The findings are discussed within reversal theory’s motivational constructs and the broader context of sport and exercise adherence in health care.

Examining reversal theory measures in relation to NEO personality dimensions and consideration of future consequences

While the Paratelic Dominance Scale and the Motivational Style Profile have been widely used as dominance measures in a number of reversal theory investigations, there is a continuing need to examine them in relation to other established personality measures. Two conceptually related measures are the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO) and the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale (CFC). These measures were administered to a sample of 136 undergraduate students enrolled in a psychology department personality course. Consistent with our predictions, telic dominance as measured by both instruments emerged as a significant predictor of both NEO conscientiousness and CFC. In addition, a number of other theoretically consistent relations emerged between telic/paratelic dominance, CFC, and NEO dimensions. Findings from the present study lend support to the construct validity of both reversal theory measures.

Metamotivational and contextual effects on performance, self-efficacy, and shifts in affective states

Abstract Objectives To examine reversal theory's (RT) postulations that telic–paratelic dominance is associated with respective arousal interpretations and shifts under different environmental conditions. Design and procedure Two studies were carried out with the same 40 students. They were categorized into telic, paratelic, and non-dominance metamotivational orientation. In study 1, participants performed dart-throwing from two distances: short (1.37 m) and long (3.37 m). In study 2, performance feedback (win, lose, win/lose) was manipulated using a competitive task. Two players, of whom one was a confederate, competed while standing side by side separated by a white curtain, which prevented visual contact with the opponent. Feedback was provided by the researcher. Arousal, pleasantness, and self-efficacy measures where administered during four trial blocks during task engagement. Results Throwing darts from the short throwing distance was associated with more pleasant feelings for telic than paratelic players, even though paratelic players were more self-efficacious and exhibited better performance. High-paratelic dominance and non-dominance players reported greater self-efficacy perceptions throughout the trials of the long throwing distance condition, suggesting that metamotivational dominance might affect efficacy beliefs during motor activities. Under variable (win/lose) and negative (lose) feedback paratelic-dominant players demonstrated better dart accuracy performance, reported more pleasant feelings, and higher efficacy perceptions than telic-dominant players. Overall, the study only partially confirmed the RT postulations. Conclusions State of the mind and affect shift during task engagement are evident in performers, and must be studied within different environmental contexts and conditions. Further studies are needed to explore the ‘shifts' thresholds’ (i.e., under what conditions people shift their state of mind) associated with contextual–metamotivational dominance interactions.

The telic/paratelic state instrument (T/PSI): validating a reversal theory measure

Abstract Reversal theory posits that individuals reverse between being telic (serious-minded) and paratelic (playful). Validating a measure of this construct required a novel approach, because the states are posited to be mutually exclusive and orthogonal to both arousal levels and affect. Vignettes depicting telic and paratelic states experienced in low, moderate, and high felt arousal levels were presented to 572 respondents who answered a 30-item questionnaire as they would have answered it during situations similar to the vignettes. Twelve items were retained on the basis of how well they discriminated between telic and paratelic vignettes. The 12-item telic/paratelic state instrument (T/PSI) was shown to be unidimensional and to have excellent internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha=0.89). Sensitivity, specificity and predictive values of the measure based on an empirically-derived cut scores are also presented. As hypothesized, scores on the T/PSI are unrelated to gender, age, social desirability, or paratelic dominance.

A Preliminary Validation of the Telic and Paratelic Dominance Scales with Japanese Respondents

AbstractThe purpose of the present study was to extend international comparative research on the Telic and Paratelic Dominance Scales (TDS &amp; PDS) to include data from 560 Japanese individuals. Statistical analyses to check the factor structure, reliability and relationship between Japanese scores on the two scales were carried out. In addition, test-retest reliability was also examined. The results indicated stronger support for the factor structure of the PDS than the TDS. Coefficient alpha statistics produced weaker alpha values for the TDS than the PDS and the relationship between Japanese scale scores were significant and in the expected direction. Test-retest reliability was found to be strong for both scales. Based on the present results, future work on the development of an international scale of telic-paratelic dominance should focus on the PDS, rather than the TDS.

Towards an international scale of telic-paratelic dominance

Abstract The Telic Dominance Scale (TDS; Murgatroyd, Rushton, Apter, & Ray, Journal of Personality Assessment, 42, 519–528, 1978), originally developed using U.K. samples, has been found to have limited effectiveness when used on U.S. samples. In an attempt to address its shortcomings, a new scale measuring telic–paratelic dominance, the Paratelic Dominance Scale (PDS; Cook & Gerkovich, Advances in Reversal Theory, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, 1993), was developed using both U.K. and U.S. samples. The PDS has a three-factor structure; the factors identified as playfulness, spontaneity and arousal seeking. The present study cross-validated the TDS and the PDS using different diverse international samples. First, individual TDS and PDS items were evaluated to determine their potential contribution for inclusion in effective international scales. Second, an internationally relevant measure of telic–paratelic dominance was developed. Several factor analyses were performed on TDS and PDS data from a combined Australian, Netherlands and North American (USA) sample (N=1203). Items of the TDS proved to be of limited value in that a large number of factors (some unique), each accounting for little variance, emerged. Analyses of PDS items were more fruitful, yielding readily interpretable factor structures. However, psychometrically sound two- and three-factor structures, replicable across validation and separate Australian, Netherlands and North American (USA) samples, emerged only when reduced item sets were used. The availability of shortened scales, comprised of internally consistent yet non-redundant scale items, is thought to be advantageous in, for example, international comparative work.

Individual differences in cardiac and EMG activity after smoking

Smoking has well-known effects on heart rate and muscle activity. The influence of individual difference factors such as gender and personality characteristics, however, are not as well-known. This study examined the effects of smoking on heart rate and muscle activity and tested for differential changes due to gender and personality characteristics that are related to arousal experience and preference. Heart rate and forearm muscle activity were measured from 25 male and 25 female smokers while they performed a continuous motor performance task under three smoking conditions: deprived for at least 4 h, sham smoking for 5 min and smoking one of their own cigarettes for 5 min. Subjects were assigned to groups based on the Paratelic Dominance Scale, a measure of preference for arousal seeking (paratelic dominant) vs arousal avoidance (telic dominant). Smoking increased heart rate more for paratelic than for telic dominant subjects; there were no gender-related differences. EMG activity was higher when telic compared to paratelic dominant subjects were deprived from smoking and smoking decreased EMG activity more for telic than for paratelic dominant subjects. No differences were found for extraverts vs introverts.

Effects of smoking and telic/paratelic dominance on the contingent negative variation (CNV)

Concepts from reversal theory, a general theory of motivation, emotion and action, have recently been shown to be relevant to smoking behavior and smoking cessation. One relevant concept is that of telic and paratelic dominance. Individuals who are paratelic-dominant are playful, spontaneous, and prefer high arousal seeking. Those who are telic-dominant are serious, tend to plan ahead, and prefer low arousal. This led to the hypothesis that smoking might increase the amplitude of the contingent negative variation (CNV) in paratelic-dominant smokers more than in telic-dominant smokers. CNV was obtained using a Go/NoGo reaction time task with a 2 s S1-S2 interval and variable intertriai intervals. S1 indicated whether the subject was to respond to S2 or not. Errors were punished with a burst of white noise. Subjects performed the CNV task three times: after being deprived of smoking for at least 4 h; after sham smoking; and after smoking a cigarette of their own brand. Telic-dominant subjects differed from paratelic-dominant subjects in the relative amplitude of early (1 s) and late (2 s) components of the CNV. Smoking did not differentially affect the dominance groups unless gender was taken into account, and the most striking interactions between smoking and dominance groups were noted for the NoGo trials. As expected, smoking decreased the amplitude of the early component of the NoGo CNV for telic-dominant women, but increased it for paratelic-dominant women; no significant differences were found for the late component. In men, smoking increased the late CNV more for telics than for paratelics, while smoking did not differentially affect the early component.

The personality of the patient: going beyond the trait concept

The concept of dominance is a key concept in reversal theory and distinguishes the theory from traditional trait theories in personality psychology. By dominance is meant the individual's tendency to spend more time in one rather than another of the pairs of opposite emotional or motivational states identified in the theory. This is in many ways a more sophisticated concept than that of trait. Some psychometric scales that have been developed to measure different kinds of dominance are reviewed: the Telic Dominance Scale, the Nijmegen Telic Dominance Scale, the Paratelic Dominance Scale, the Negativism Dominance Scale and the Personal Orientation Profile. The relevance of the dominance concept is discussed in relation to patient management.

Arousal-seeking in risk sport participants

Three independent studies, involving male Australian, Dutch and British subjects, were carried out to examine arousal-seeking (paratelic dominance) in regular performers of risk and safe sports. Research participants comprising samples of risk, safe and, in one case, non-sporting individuals completed the Telic Dominance Scale (TDS). The results indicated that: (a) Australian surfers and sailboarding groups scored similarly and significantly lower than a weight training group on all three TDS subscales and on overall telic dominance; (b) Dutch parachutists and motor-cycle racers scored significantly lower on the arousal avoidance TDS subscale than marathon runners; (c) British glider pilots scored significantly lower on the arousal avoidance TDS subscale than a non-sporting sample of the general public. The findings generally support the view, from reversal theory, that individuals who perform risk sports on a regular basis are arousal seekers.

Is stress always bad? Telic versus paratelic dominance as a stress-moderating variable.

Is stress always bad? Telic versus paratelic dominance as a stress-moderating variable.

Is stress always bad? Telic versus paratelic dominance as a stress-moderating variable.

Is stress always bad? Telic versus paratelic dominance as a stress-moderating variable.

Obsessionality and reversal theory.

The study investigates the hypothesis that obsessional traits may be related to telic dominance (a state in which the individual pursues goals seen by him as essential) while obsessional symptoms may be related to extreme vacillation between telic dominance and its opposite state of paratelic dominance (in which the individual concentrates upon the purely diversionary nature of an activity). Using questionnaire methods and normal subjects, the hypothesis received cautious support.