Species Of Parasitic Wasps Research Articles

Assessing the composition and abundance of beneficial fauna trapped in Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) traps in peach orchards in Tunisia

Experiment on trapping non-target arthropods in conventional delta traps baited with Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) female attractant was undertaken in multi-variety peaches orchards in the north East of Tunisia during the cultivation season (from May 2022 to September 2022). Hence, 24 Delta traps having white sticky panels were placed in the experimental site and inspected generally at weekly interval. Captured insects were determined to family level visually using a manual magnifying glass when possible, or gently removed and identified in the laboratory under binocular microscope either on family or species levels. Results indicated that traps attracted very low number of non-target arthropods compared to Mediterranean fruit fly adults. Collected species belonged to families: Apidae, Halictidae, Colletidae, Megachilidae, Braconidae, Ichneumonidae, Scelionidae, Pteromalidae, Torymidae, Chalcididae, Eucoilidae, Syrphidae, Pompilidae, Crabronidae, Coccinellidae, Chrysopidae and Formicidae. In total, more than 700 adults of Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens, 1836) were attracted and 53 % of captured individuals are parasitic wasp species belonging particularly to Pteromalidae and Scelionidae families. Compared to the highest level of MedFly capture, the effect of delta traps baited with the female attractants on beneficials can be considered as insignificant (Kruskal-Wallis test ANOVA H = 35.6947, P < 0.00001). Hence, trapping grid can be used to monitor the population of MedFly without hazardous effects on beneficial insect fauna.

Lipogenesis in Nasonia vitripennis: Influence of sugar chemistry, preferential production of triacylglycerides, and comparison of fatty acid biosynthetic capacity with Drosophilamelanogaster

Sugar consumption increases the fecundity and longevity in many species of parasitic wasps (parasitoids) but whether these insects use sugars to synthesize significant amounts of fatty acids and storage fat de novo (lipogenesis) is discussed controversially. It has long been assumed that parasitic wasps lost this ability during evolution, mainly because in several species wasps with ad libitum access to sugar did not increase teneral lipid levels. Recent studies demonstrated that many species are nonetheless capable of synthesizing fatty acids de novo from glucose. It is unclear, however, whether also other sugars are used for fatty acid biosynthesis and whether an increase of sugar concentration to levels occurring in natural sugar sources translates into higher fatty acid production. Furthermore, it has been suggested that fatty acid production in parasitoids is negligible compared to species increasing teneral fat reserves such as Drosophila melanogaster. Here we show by stable isotope labeling experiments that females of Nasonia vitripennis convert D-glucose, D-fructose, sucrose, and α,α-trehalose, major sugars consumed by adult parasitoids in nature, equally well to palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acid. Lipogenesis from D-galactose occurs as well albeit to a lesser extent. Sugar concentration is crucial for lipogenic activity, and almost 80% of de novo synthesized fatty acids were incorporated into storage fat (triacylglycerides). Comparison of fatty acid biosynthesis within a 48-h feeding period with D. melanogaster revealed that N. vitripennis produced approximately half as many fatty acids per body mass unit. Both species fed equal amounts of the glucose offered. We conclude that lipogenesis is far from negligible in N. vitripennis and plays an important role for the energy balance when teneral lipid reserves deplete.

Infestation of parasitic wasps from nettle caterpillar Ploneta diducta Snellen (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) in oil palm plantation

AbstractThe nettle caterpillarPloneta diducta(Lepidoptera: Limocodidae) is the leaf-eating caterpillar of oil palm that emerged in Central Kalimantan. The identification of hymenopteran parasitic wasps as natural enemy will help the planters to take action to conserve agronomy practices. The census ofP. diductawas carried out in PT Windu Nabatindo Abadi Central Kalimantan starting in January until August 2022. The population ofP. diductawas found only in three blocks (±100 ha), with a total population is 52 larvae. Of the total population, 92% is unparasitized larvae and 8% is parasitized larvae.P. diductalarvae found are reared in the insectary and observed the emergence of parasitic wasps. There were three species of parasitic wasps that infectedP. diducta, namelyApantelessp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae),Goryphussp. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) andXanthopimplasp. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Parasitic waspApantelessp. was a gregarious parasitoid and both speciesGoryphussp. andXanthopimplasp. were solitary. From these wasps, the highest infestation byXanthopimplasp. (9.6% parasitism rate) followed byGoryphussp. (3.8% parasitism rate) andApantelessp. (1.9% parasitism rate). Conservation of this insect by intensification of flowering plants can drive the wasp population and its function in oil palm plantations.

Two Parasitic Wasp Species: Ichneumon sarcitorius and I. ostentator in Iraq

Kareem, A.A., A. Alsendi, S. Al-Zurfi, A. Alamri and R.K. Aljaafari. 2024. Two Parasitic Wasp Species: Ichneumon sarcitorius and I. ostentator in Iraq. Arab Journal of Plant Protection, 42(2): 245-247. https://doi.org/10.22268/AJPP-001226 This study was carried out in Karbala and Najaf cities in June 2020. A sweeping net was used to collect the specimens during the survey. Results obtained indicated that the samples collected belong to the Ichneumonidae family (Order: Hymenoptera), one of the large and long Ichneumon wasps. This is the first report on the occurrence of two Ichneumon species, Ichneumon sarcitorius (Linnaeus, 1758) and I. ostentator (Heinrich, 1978), in the Al-Husayniya district of Karbala and Najaf provinces in Iraq. However, more survey is needed to identify their hosts in Iraq. Keywords: Ichneumon sarcitorius, Ichneumon ostentator, Taxonomy, Iraq

Parasitic wasps (Hymenoptera) and Biological Control in Chile: Applications and Potentials

Global biodiversity decline and pollution, along with climate change, directly threaten food security and sovereignty. Unsustainable practices in industrial agriculture, including the introduction of non-native insects exacerbate this environmental crisis. These can invade native habitats and disrupt the ecological balance, leading to biodiversity loss. We created a database of parasitic wasp species used for biological control in Chile, examining the percentage of introduced and native species, introduction timelines, and host interactions. A total of 73% of the Hymenoptera used for biological control in Chile are exotic species. This trend has grown over decades as new species were continuously introduced, resulting in an increasing accumulation of exotic species. We also identified instances of native and introduced parasitoid species sharing the same hosts, potentially causing a spillover effect. Given Chile's high endemism in its insect population, the massive introduction of exotic species could have detrimental consequences for local biodiversity and agricultural ecosystems. Overreliance on non-native pest controllers impedes the use of existing native biological control species, increasing vulnerability to pests adapted to widely used biological control agents. We advocate for prioritizing local and native parasitic wasps to ensure long-lasting, and sustainable agriculture production in Chile while mitigating the negative impacts of exotic species.

Potential Parasitoids for Biocontrol of the Ber Fruit Fly, Carpomya vesuviana Costa (Diptera: Tephritidae).

The ber fruit fly (BFF), Carpomya vesuviana Costa, 1854 (Diptera: Tephritidae), is an important key pest of the jujube, Ziziphus jujuba Miller. The main control measures against this pest are to use chemical control, but the first survey for its natural enemies was performed in Iran. Here, we report eight species of parasitic wasps of the BFF from five different families. The family Eurytomidae with three species, the families Pteromalidae and Mutillidae with two species each, and the families Braconidae and Diapriidae with one species each are associated with different immature stages of the BFF, of which Eurytoma pineticola Zerova (Eurytomidae) and Cyrtoptyx lichtensteini (Masi) (Pteromalidae) were the most abundant parasitoid species. Fopius carpomyiae (Silvestri,) was not reared on BFF on the jujube during this survey, but it was reported on Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) with a high parasitism rate. Therefore, it seems to be the most important parasitoid of BFF in Iran. The parasitoid community of BFF in Khorasan, Eastern Iran, is reviewed, and an identification key to these species is proposed.

Bottom‐up effects shift top‐down community structure of the parasitoid guild that attacks Asphondylia borrichiae (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on Borrichia frutescens (Asteraceae)

Abstract Asphondylia borrichiae induces galls at the apical meristems of its host plant, Borrichia frutescens, and the larvae develop and pupate within the gall. During development, immature stages of the midge are attacked by four species of parasitic wasps; two of these parasitoids, Galeopsomyia haemon and Torymus umbilicatus, are the most common members of the guild, and both are hyperparasitic. In the current study, plots of B. frutescens were randomly assigned to control (unmanipulated), salted or fertilised in a long‐term press experiment. Although plots initially exhibited no differences in stem length, gall and flower densities, after 3 months, they began to exhibit significant differences, suggesting stress (salted plots) and vigour (fertilised plots). Galls produced on plants from fertilised plots were approximately 20% and 31% larger than those from control and salted plots, respectively. Larger gall diameter in fertilised plots resulted in a shift of the parasitoid community towards the largest parasitoid, T. umgbilicatus, whereas smaller galls produced in salted plots became biased towards the smallest, but gregarious, G. haemon; interestingly, this pattern held for T. umbilicatus across treatments, and the effect for G. haemon was not significant when all treatments were combined. This study suggests that abiotic factors that alter host plant characteristics, such as gall diameter, affect the composition of the parasitoid guild that attacks A. borrichiae, which has implications for the acquisition of enemy‐free space during host range expansion of the midge.

Cover Picture and Issue Information

Functional EcologyVolume 37, Issue 4 p. 793-795 COVER PICTURE AND ISSUE INFORMATIONFree Access Cover Picture and Issue Information First published: 05 April 2023 https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.14074AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Graphical Abstract This caterpillar, Manduca sexta, is parasitized by a wasp, Cotesia congregata (credit: Laura McMillan). The female wasp injects eggs, venom, and a domesticated virus (polydnavirus) into the host. The caterpillar shows normal behaviour while the wasp larvae are developing inside the caterpillar’s blood space. Once the wasp larvae are ready to metamorphose into adult wasps, they scape their way through the body wall of the caterpillar and spin a cocoon. At this stage, the caterpillar loses all self-generated behaviour but shows heightened defense reflexes, thereby becoming a bodyguard for the wasp cocoons. Who pays for manipulating the host’s behaviour, mother or offspring? In this system, the mother wasp appears to pay most of the cost by producing the polydnavirus. However, the wasp larvae also play a role in inducing changes for their own individual benefit. For example, they numb the area of the caterpillar’s body wall around their exit hole, thus reducing the risk of host attack. There are many species of parasitic wasps, with different life histories (e.g. how many offspring are placed within each host), and these differences alter the selective forces on who pays for parasitic manipulation (10.1111/1365-2435.14150). Volume37, Issue4Special Feature: Mechanisms and Consequences of Infection‐Induced PhenotypesApril 2023Pages 793-795 RelatedInformation

Symbiotic Wolbachia bacteria in coccinellid parasitoids: genetic diversity, horizontal transfer, and recombination.

Parasitoids, which constitute about 25% of all insects and attack arthropods of virtually all taxa, are considered the most suitable vectors for horizontal transmission of the symbiotic bacterium Wolbachia among insects. The parasitoids studied in this article develop in the larvae and pupae of ladybirds. For the first time, Wolbachia was found in parasitic wasp species of the genus Homalotylus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and from the subfamily Tetrastichinae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). To characterize the Wolbachia strains, six bacterial housekeeping genes were examined and compared with previously published Wolbachia gene sequences. The same bacterial strains were found in all individuals of each species of parasitic wasps collected in different places and at different times, which indicates the absence of contamination and testifies to the heritability of the symbionts in the studied chalcids. No evidence was found that the parasitic wasps were infected with Wolbachia, identical to the symbionts of their ladybirds hosts. We found one Wolbachia strain, wHom-2, which is a product of bacterial recombination from unrelated insects, including ladybirds. The lack of correspondence between the molecular phylogenies of Wolbachia strains and mitochondrial DNA of their hosts indicates horizontal transfers of Wolbachia among parasitic wasps of the genus Homalotylus and from the subfamily Tetrastichinae.

A peculiar case of parasitisation with two new species of wasps parasitizing the rice leaf-roller Pelopidas mathias (Fabricius, 1798) (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) from southern India.

Paddy, Oryza sativa L. (Poales: Poaecea) is infested by a series of lepidopteran, coleopteran, hemipteran, and acarine pests in India. Of the long list, the species Rice Leaf-Roller Pelopidas mathias (Fabricius, 1798) (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) is one of most encountered defoliators on paddy. Here we record and describe with illustrations, a new parasitic complex comprising of two new species of parasitic wasps, viz. Brachymeria eastwoodi Binoy, sp. nov. and Sympiesis eastwoodi James & Santhosh, sp. nov. on the pupae of P. mathias from southern India. The parasitoid complexes on P. mathias are also augmented.

Distribution and life history of Contarinia brassicola (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in canola (Brassica napus) grown on the Canadian Prairies

AbstractContarinia brassicola Sinclair (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) is a recently described species found infesting canola (Brassica napus L. and Brassica rapa L., Brassicaceae) in western Canada. There is concern that C. brassicola could have economic impacts on canola production. To learn about its biology, distribution, natural enemies, and potential impact, we conducted a prairie‐wide survey in western Canada and field studies using emergence cages and plant dissections between 2017 and 2019. Results of a transect‐based survey conducted in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba indicated that C. brassicola is widely distributed in western Canada. Two species of parasitic wasp were reared from C. brassicola larvae collected during the survey. We found that C. brassicola can have multiple generations per year, with the first peak of adult emergence occurring in early July with the onset of the susceptible crop stage. Adult midge and larvae may be found from June until early autumn. Midge larvae appear capable of extended diapause over multiple years. During this study, we found that C. brassicola damage was restricted to developing flowers. In the vast majority of fields surveyed, C. brassicola occurred in low population densities and was unlikely to impact yield in those fields.

Comparative Karyotype Analysis of Parasitoid Hymenoptera (Insecta): Major Approaches, Techniques, and Results.

A comprehensive review of main approaches, techniques and results of the chromosome study of parasitic wasps is given. In this group, the haploid chromosome number ranges from n = 3 to 23. Distribution of parasitic wasp species by the chromosome number is bimodal, with two obvious modes at n = 6 and 11. Karyotype analysis based on routinely stained preparations of mitotic chromosomes can be used to identify members of taxonomically complicated parasitoid taxa and to distinguish between them. Morphometric study effectively reveals subtle differences between similar chromosome sets of parasitic wasps. If combined with meiotic analysis and/or cytometric data, information on mitotic karyotypes can highlight pathways of the genome evolution in certain parasitoid taxa. C- and AgNOR-banding as well as staining with base-specific fluorochromes detected important interspecific differences within several groups of parasitic wasps. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is successfully used for physical mapping of various DNA sequences on parasitoid chromosomes. These techniques demonstrate that heterochromatic segments are usually restricted to pericentromeric regions of chromosomes of parasitic wasps. Haploid karyotypes carrying one or two nucleolus organizing regions (NORs) are the most frequent among parasitoid Hymenoptera. In combination with chromosome microdissection, FISH could become a powerful tool exploring the genome evolution of parasitic wasps. Perspectives of the comparative cytogenetic study of parasitoid Hymenoptera are outlined.

Anastrepha striata1 Parasitic Wasps in Guava Crops at Fragmented Landscapes of Nayarit, Mexico

Biological control using native parasitoids is a sustainable alternative to control tephritid flies. We tested whether landscape attributes surrounding guava trees might affect incidence of fruit flies and their parasitoids. From July to September 2019, we collected guava fruit at six locations at Nayarit, México. Pupae obtained from the fruit collected were reared in a laboratory until emergence of adult flies and parasitoids. We combined in situ georeferenced information with 2019 SPOT-7 satellite images to characterize the landscape in circular 500-m buffers. Spearman-rank tests were used to analyze correlation between abundance of Anastrepha striata and parasitoids with the proportion of each soil coverage. Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to evaluate the influence of management intensity with abundance of the fruit fly and parasitoids. We collected 15.7 kg of guava fruit from six localities. Anastrepha striata was at all localities sampled. Infestation of fruit was 9.4%, ranging from 0.5 to 35.2 larvae per kilogram. The four parasitic wasp species attacking A. striata were Doryctobracon areolatus, Trichopria drosophilae, Aceratoneuromyia indica, and Leptopilina boulardi and are new records of interactions in the State of Nayarit. The wasps attacked 7.5% of the fruit fly pupae.

Two new species of wasps parasitizing the rare gelechid defoliator Coconympha iriarcha Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) on Cocos nucifera Linnaeus from India

The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera L. (Arecales: Arecaceae), is infested by a series of lepidopteran, coleopteran, hemipteran, and acarine pests in India. Of the long list, the species Coconympha iriarcha Meyrick 1931 (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is one of the least encountered defoliators on coconut. Here we record and describe with illustrations, two new species of parasitic wasps, viz. Pediobius coconymphagus Binoy & Sureshan, sp. nov. and Goniozus coconymphagus Santhosh sp. nov., attacking the pupae and larvae of C. iriarcha from India.

De novo biosynthesis of linoleic acid is widespread in parasitic wasps.

Linoleic acid (C18:2∆9,12 , LA) is an important metabolite with numerous essential functions for growth, health, and reproduction of organisms. It has long been assumed that animals lack ∆12-desaturases, the enzymes needed to produce LA from oleic acid (C18:1∆9 , OA). There is, however, increasing evidence that this is not generally true for invertebrates. In the insect order Hymenoptera, LA biosynthesis has been shown for only two parasitic wasp species of the so-called "Nasonia group,"but it is unknown whether members of other taxa are also capable of synthesizing LA. Here, we demonstrate LA biosynthesis in 13 out of 14 species from six families of parasitic wasps by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis using two different stable isotope labeling techniques. Females of the studied species converted topically applied fully 13 C-labeled OA into LA and/or produced labeled LA after feeding on fully 13 C-labeled α- d-glucose. These results indicate that ∆12-desaturases are widespread in parasitic Hymenoptera and confirm previous studies demonstrating that these insects are capable of synthesizing fatty acids de novo.

Differential gene expression in a tripartite interaction: Drosophila, Spiroplasma and parasitic wasps.

BackgroundSeveral facultative bacterial symbionts of insects protect their hosts against natural enemies. Spiroplasma poulsonii strain sMel (hereafter Spiroplasma), a male-killing heritable symbiont of Drosophila melanogaster, confers protection against some species of parasitic wasps. Several lines of evidence suggest that Spiroplasma-encoded ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs) are involved in the protection mechanism, but the potential contribution of the fly-encoded functions (e.g., immune response), has not been deeply explored.MethodsHere we used RNA-seq to evaluate the response of D. melanogaster to infection by Spiroplasma and parasitism by the Spiroplasma-susceptible wasp Leptopilina heterotoma, and the Spiroplasma-resistant wasp Ganaspis sp. In addition, we used quantitative (q)PCR to evaluate the transcript levels of the Spiroplasma-encoded Ribosomal inactivation protein (RIP) genes.ResultsIn the absence of Spiroplasma infection, we found evidence of Drosophila immune activation by Ganaspis sp., but not by L. heterotoma, which in turn negatively influenced functions associated with male gonad development. As expected for a symbiont that kills males, we detected extensive downregulation in the Spiroplasma-infected treatments of genes known to have male-biased expression. We detected very few genes whose expression patterns appeared to be influenced by the Spiroplasma-L. heterotoma interaction, and these genes are not known to be associated with immune response. For most of these genes, parasitism by L. heterotoma (in the absence of Spiroplasma) caused an expression change that was at least partly reversed when both L. heterotoma and Spiroplasma were present. It is unclear whether such genes are involved in the Spiroplasma-mediated mechanism that leads to wasp death and/or fly rescue. Nonetheless, the expression pattern of some of these genes, which reportedly undergo expression shifts during the larva-to-pupa transition, is suggestive of an influence of Spiroplasma on the development time of L. heterotoma-parasitized flies. One of the five RIP genes (RIP2) was consistently highly expressed independently of wasp parasitism, in two substrains of sMel. Finally, the RNAseq data revealed evidence consistent with RIP-induced damage in the ribosomal (r)RNA of the Spiroplasma-susceptible, but not the Spiroplasma-resistant, wasp. Acknowledging the caveat that we lacked adequate power to detect the majority of DE genes with fold-changes lower than 3, we conclude that immune priming is unlikely to contribute to the Spiroplasma-mediated protection against wasps, and that the mechanism by which Ganaspis sp. resists/tolerates Spiroplasma does not involve inhibition of RIP transcription.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Leptopilina syphax (Hymenoptera: Figitidae)

Leptopilina syphax (Hymenoptera: Figitidae) is a newly recorded species of parasitic wasp, and it attacks the larval stage of Drosophilidae, mainly the Drosophila species. Few works have been done in the basic study of L. syphax, including the data of mitochondrial genome. In this study, the complete mitochondrial genome of L. syphax (GeneBank accession number: MT649407) was sequenced using Illumina HiSeq X Ten system. The mitochondrial genome is 15,882bp long and comprises 13 protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNA genes and 22 transfer RNA genes. Meanwhile, 26 genes are in majority strand, and the remaining 11 genes are in minority strand. The overall base composition is 41.7% for A, 6.0% for G, 13.6% for C, and 38.7% for T, with an A + T content of 80.4%, respectively. We also performed a phylogenetic analysis with other known mitochondrial genomes of some parasitic wasps. The results show that L. syphax is closely related to L. boulardi, which is another Drosophila parasitoid.

A new genus and species of parasitic wasps (Hymenoptera: Diapriidae) from Hkamti mid–Cretaceous Burmese amber

Protobelyta monsirei gen. et sp. nov., a new genus and species of belytine wasp (Diapriidae: Belytinae), is described from a female preserved in mid–Cretaceous Burmese (Albian–Cenomanian) amber from Hkamti. The new fossil is the first description of the family in Burmese amber and one of the oldest known Belytinae, providing evidence for the antiquity of modern diapriid lineages.

A Behavior-Manipulating Virus Relative as a Source of Adaptive Genes for Drosophila Parasitoids.

Some species of parasitic wasps have domesticated viral machineries to deliver immunosuppressive factors to their hosts. Up to now, all described cases fall into the Ichneumonoidea superfamily, which only represents around 10% of hymenoptera diversity, raising the question of whether such domestication occurred outside this clade. Furthermore, the biology of the ancestral donor viruses is completely unknown. Since the 1980s, we know that Drosophila parasitoids belonging to the Leptopilina genus, which diverged from the Ichneumonoidea superfamily 225 Ma, do produce immunosuppressive virus-like structure in their reproductive apparatus. However, the viral origin of these structures has been the subject of debate. In this article, we provide genomic and experimental evidence that those structures do derive from an ancestral virus endogenization event. Interestingly, its close relatives induce a behavior manipulation in present-day wasps. Thus, we conclude that virus domestication is more prevalent than previously thought and that behavior manipulation may have been instrumental in the birth of such associations.

The nature of interspecific interactions and co-diversification patterns, as illustrated by the fig microcosm.

Summary Interactions between mutualists, competitors, and antagonists have contrasting ecological effects that, sustained over generations, can influence micro‐ and macroevolution. Dissimilar benefits and costs for these interactions should cause contrasting co‐diversification patterns between interacting clades, with prevalent co‐speciation by mutualists, association loss by competitors, and host switching by antagonists.We assessed these expectations for a local assemblage of 26 fig species (Moraceae: Ficus), 26 species of mutualistic (pollinating), and 33 species of parasitic (galling) wasps (Chalcidoidea). Using newly acquired gene sequences, we inferred the phylogenies for all three clades. We then compared the three possible pairs of phylogenies to assess phylogenetic congruence and the relative frequencies of co‐speciation, association duplication, switching, and loss.The paired phylogenies of pollinators with their mutualists and competitors were significantly congruent, unlike that of figs and their parasites. The distributions of macroevolutionary events largely agreed with expectations for mutualists and antagonists. By contrast, that for competitors involved relatively frequent association switching, as expected, but also unexpectedly frequent co‐speciation. The latter result likely reflects the heterogeneous nature of competition among fig wasps.These results illustrate the influence of different interspecific interactions on co‐diversification, while also revealing its dependence on specific characteristics of those interactions.