Honey Bee Parasite Research Articles

Genome drafts of Lotmaria passim strains C2 and C3 isolated from honey bees in Spain.

Lotmaria passim is a highly prevalent parasite of honey bees. Herein is reported the draft genome sequences of L. passim C2 and C3 strains of 27.15 Mbp and 26.94 Mbp, respectively. The genomes were sequenced using Illumina MiSeq platform and will allow for further comparative and functional genomics studies.

Somy evolution in the honey bee infecting trypanosomatid parasite, Lotmaria passim.

Lotmaria passim is a ubiquitous trypanosomatid parasite of honey bees nestled within the medically important subfamily Leishmaniinae. Although this parasite is associated with honey bee colony losses, the original draft genome-which was completed before its differentiation from the closely related Crithidia mellificae-has remained the reference for this species despite lacking improvements from newer methodologies. Here we report the updated sequencing, assembly, and annotation of the BRL type strain (ATCC PRA-422) of Lotmaria passim. The nuclear genome assembly has been resolved into 31 complete chromosomes and is paired with an assembled kinetoplast genome consisting of a maxicircle and 30 minicircle sequences. The assembly spans 33.7 Mb and contains very little repetitive content, from which our annotation of both the nuclear assembly and kinetoplast predicted 10,288 protein-coding genes. Analyses of the assembly revealed evidence of a recent chromosomal duplication event within chromosomes 5 and 6 and provides evidence for a high level of aneuploidy in this species, mirroring the genomic flexibility employed by other trypanosomatids as a means of adaptation to different environments. This high-quality reference can therefore provide insights into adaptations of trypanosomatids to the thermally regulated, acidic, and phytochemically rich honey bee hindgut niche, which offers parallels to the challenges faced by other Leishmaniinae during the challenges they undergo within insect vectors, during infection of mammals, and exposure to antiparasitic drugs throughout their multi-host life cycles. This reference will also facilitate investigations of strain-specific genomic polymorphisms, their role in pathogenicity, and the development of treatments for pollinator infection.

Managing the parasitic honey bee mite Tropilaelaps mercedesae through combined cultural and chemical control methods

The western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is severely impacted by the parasitic Tropilaelaps mercedesae mite, which has the capacity to outcompete Varroa destructor mites (the current leading cause of colony losses) and more rapidly overwhelm colonies. While T. mercedesae is native to Asia, it has recently expanded its geographic range and has the potential to devastate beekeeping worldwide if introduced to new regions. Our research exploited the dependence of T. mercedesae on developing honey bees (brood) by combining a cultural technique (brood break) with U.S. registered chemical products (oxalic acid or formic acid) to manage T. mercedesae infestation. To evaluate this approach, we compared four treatment groups: (1) Brood Break; (2) Brood Break + Formic Acid (FormicPro®); (3) Brood Break + Oxalic Acid dribble (Api-Bioxal®); and (4) untreated Control. We found that the mite infestation rate of worker brood in Control colonies rose from 0.4 to 15.25% over 60 days, whereas all other treatment groups had infestation rates under 0.11% on Day 60. Mite fall assessments showed similar results, whereby Control colonies had 15.48 mites fall per 24 h on day 60 compared to less than 0.2 mites for any other treatment group. Evaluation of colony strength revealed that Brood Break + Formic Acid colonies had slightly reduced adult honey bee populations. No treatment eliminated all mites, so additional measures may be needed to eradicate T. mercedesae if detected in countries that do not currently have T. mercedesae.

Chemosensory function of Varroa gnathosoma: transcriptomic and proteomic analyses

In this study, we evaluated the role of the gnathosoma (mouthparts) in chemosensing of the most devastating honey bee parasite, Varroa destructor mite. Through transcriptomic analysis, we compared the expression of putative chemosensory genes between the body parts containing the main chemosensory organs (the forelegs), gnathosoma and the rest of the body devoid of these two body parts. Furthermore, we checked the presence of chemosensory-related transcripts in the proteome of the gnathosoma. Our comparative transcriptomic analysis revealed the presence of 83 transcripts with known characteristic conserved domains belonging to eight chemosensory gene families in the three Varroa transcriptomes. Among these transcripts, 11 were significantly upregulated in the mite’s forelegs, compared to 8 and 10 in the gnathosoma and body devoid of both organs, respectively. Whilst the gnathosoma and the forelegs share similar expression of some putative lipid carrier proteins, membrane-bound receptors, and associated proteins, they also differ in the expression profiles of some transcripts belonging to these protein families. This suggests two functional chemosensory organs that may differ in their chemosensory function according to specific characteristics of compounds they detect. Moreover, the higher expression of some chemosensory transcripts in the body devoid of forelegs and gnathosoma compared to the gnathosoma alone, may suggest the presence of additional function of these transcripts or alternatively presence of additional external or internal chemosensory organs. Insights into the functional annotation of a highly expressed gustatory receptor present in both organs using RNA interference (RNAi) are also revealed.

HBeeID: a molecular tool that identifies honey bee subspecies from different geographic populations

BackgroundHoney bees are the principal commercial pollinators. Along with other arthropods, they are increasingly under threat from anthropogenic factors such as the incursion of invasive honey bee subspecies, pathogens and parasites. Better tools are needed to identify bee subspecies. Genomic data for economic and ecologically important organisms is increasing, but in its basic form its practical application to address ecological problems is limited.ResultsWe introduce HBeeID a means to identify honey bees. The tool utilizes a knowledge-based network and diagnostic SNPs identified by discriminant analysis of principle components and hierarchical agglomerative clustering. Tests of HBeeID showed that it identifies African, Americas-Africanized, Asian, and European honey bees with a high degree of certainty even when samples lack the full 272 SNPs of HBeeID. Its prediction capacity decreases with highly admixed samples.ConclusionHBeeID is a high-resolution genomic, SNP based tool, that can be used to identify honey bees and screen species that are invasive. Its flexible design allows for future improvements via sample data additions from other localities.

Occurrence of Lotmaria Passim in Africanized and European Honey Bee, Apis Mellifera, Lineages from the United States

Abstract Honey bee populations in the United States have been under stress for the past several decades. Several internal parasites may contribute to this, including the trypanosome Lotmaria passim. It is unknown how widespread the honey bee parasite, L. passim, is in Africanized honey bee (AHB) populations in the United States. A total of 321 feral honey bee colony samples which had been previously recorded to be of Africanized origin using molecular diagnostics from California (n=3), New Mexico (n=46), Oklahoma (n=57), Texas (n=106), and Utah (n=109) were used in this study. Of these samples, a total of 15 (4.7%) from three States were positive for L. passim. Utah AHB samples had the highest infection rate (11.0%), followed by Texas (1.9%) and Oklahoma (1.8%). Compared with previous studies on the occurrence of L. passim from European honey bees from the same sampled States, infection rates of Africanized honey bees for L. passim were significantly higher in the State of Utah, but not for the other sampled States. This study provides evidence that feral honey bee populations do not necessarily have lower levels of honey bee parasites than managed honey bee colonies.

Varroa mite removal from whole honey bee colonies by powdered sugar dusting is enhanced by crowding and mechanical agitation of treated workers

The honey bee parasite, Varroa destructor, is susceptible to removal by dusting agents that physically interfere with its ability to cling to its phoretic hosts. Here we describe modifications to established powdered sugar dusting techniques that modestly increased mite separation from hosts and allowed for greater reductions in whole colony mite infestation rates. These modifications increased body-to-body contact through crowding and mechanical agitation to supplement dusting effects on mite removal. Adult workers were isolated in a screened sugar shake box outside the colony, dusted with powdered sugar, then carefully shaken and bounced in crowded piles for one minute to separate mites from their hosts. Whole colony powdered sugar shake treatments resulted on average in a 92% reduction in post-treatment mite infestation rates over three successive mite treatments. Our modifications provided effective mite control comparable to the miticide Apiguard (thymol) without discernable negative effects on colonies. Four months after treatment, powdered sugar shake treated colonies had relatively similar-sized adult worker and brood populations as Apiguard treated colonies and larger adult populations than controls. Colonies also maintained queens and reared relatively few queen cells across treatments. Further comparisons of method components revealed that mechanical agitation of crowded workers enhanced mite separation from hosts due to powdered sugar dusting. Mechanical agitation alone only modestly increased mite separation compared to controls; however, high levels of mite separation associated with sugar dusting increased with agitation. These modified methods provide a rapid if laborious technique for reducing mite populations without chemical residues from restricted miticides.

Faster-growing parasites threaten host populations via patch-level population dynamics and higher virulence; a case study in Varroa mites (Mesostigmata: Varroidae) and honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae).

Honey bee parasites remain a critical challenge to management and conservation. Because managed honey bees are maintained in colonies kept in apiaries across landscapes, the study of honey bee parasites allows the investigation of spatial principles in parasite ecology and evolution. We used a controlled field experiment to study the relationship between population growth rate and virulence (colony survival) of the parasite Varroa destructor (Anderson and Trueman). We used a nested design of 10 patches (apiaries) of 14 colonies to examine the spatial scale at which Varroa population growth matters for colony survival. We tracked Varroa population size and colony survival across a full year and found that Varroa populations that grow faster in their host colonies during the spring and summer led to larger Varroa populations across the whole apiary (patch) and higher rates of neighboring colony loss. Crucially, this increased colony loss risk manifested at the patch scale, with mortality risk being related to spatial adjacency to colonies with fast-growing Varroa strains rather than with Varroa growth rate in the colony itself. Thus, within-colony population growth predicts whole-apiary virulence, demonstrating the need to consider multiple scales when investigating parasite growth-virulence relationships.

Honey bee (Apis mellifera) nurse bee visitation of worker and drone larvae increases Varroa destructor mite cell invasion.

The life cycle of Varroa destructor, the ectoparasitic mite of honey bees (Apis mellifera), includes a dispersal phase, in which mites attach to adult bees for transport and feeding, and a reproductive phase, in which mites invade worker and drone brood cells just prior to pupation to reproduce while their bee hosts complete development. In this study, we wanted to determine whether increased nurse bee visitations of adjacent drone and worker brood cells would increase the likelihood of Varroa mites invading those cells. We also explored whether temporarily restricting the nurses' access to sections of worker brood for 2 or 4h would subsequently cause higher nurse visitations, and thus, higher Varroa cell invasions. Temporarily precluding larvae from being fed by nurses subsequently led to higher Varroa infestation of those sections in some colonies, but this pattern was not consistent across colonies. Therefore, removing highly infested sections of capped worker brood could be further explored as a potential mechanical/cultural method for mite control. Our results provide more information on how nurse visitations affect the patterns of larval cell invasion by Varroa. Given that the mite's successful reproduction depends on the nurses' ability to visit and feed developing brood, more studies are needed to understand the patterns of Varroa mite invasion of drone and worker cells to better combat this pervasive honey bee parasite.

Promastigote EPS secretion and haptomonad biofilm formation as evolutionary adaptations of trypanosomatid parasites for colonizing honeybee hosts

Bees are major pollinators involved in the maintenance of all terrestrial ecosystems. Biotic and abiotic factors placing these insects at risk is a research priority for ecological and agricultural sustainability. Parasites are one of the key players of this global decline and the study of their mechanisms of action is essential to control honeybee colony losses. Trypanosomatid parasites and particularly the Lotmaria passim are widely spread in honeybees, however their lifestyle is poorly understood. In this work, we show how these parasites are able to differentiate into a new parasitic lifestyle: the trypanosomatid biofilms. Using different microscopic techniques, we demonstrated that the secretion of Extracellular Polymeric Substances by free-swimming unicellular promastigote forms is a prerequisite for the generation and adherence of multicellular biofilms to solid surfaces in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, compared to human-infective trypanosomatid parasites our study shows how trypanosomatid parasites of honeybees increases their resistance and thus resilience to drastic changes in environmental conditions such as ultralow temperatures and hypoosmotic shock, which would explain their success thriving within or outside their hosts. These results set up the basis for the understanding of the success of this group of parasites in nature and to unveil the impact of such pathogens in honeybees, a keystones species in most terrestrial ecosystems.

Exploring genetic variation and phylogenetic patterns of Tropilaelaps mercedesae (Mesostigmata: Laelapidae) populations in Asia

IntroductionThe mites belonging to the genus Tropilaelaps are ectoparasites of honey bees, primarily infesting the larval and pupal stages. Originating from subtropical regions, these mites can cause brood malformation, bee mortality, and subsequent decline or absconding of colonies.Material and methodsDuring field surveys conducted in Nepal, South Korea, and Uzbekistan to investigate honey bee pests, several populations of T. mercedesae were collected. This is the first record of T. mercedesae from Uzbekistan. The morphological characteristics of the collected populations were analyzed, and their phylogenetic relationship with other Asian populations was examined.Results and discussionThe molecular analysis of cytochrome oxidase I gene revealed high similarity between Uzbekistan and Pakistan populations, signaling the potential invasion of subtropical honey bee parasites into the Central Asian beekeeping sectors. Phylogenetic analysis indicated the presence of four distinct lineages within the mainland-Indonesian populations of T. mercedesae. Notably, an evolutionary divergence was observed between the haplotypes from Sri Lanka and the Philippines compared to the remaining mainland Asian and Indonesian haplotypes, suggesting the possible existence of subspecies or separate species in these isolated locations. To gain a deeper understanding of this phenomenon, it is essential to continue monitoring the spread of this significant honey bee pest and conduct comprehensive morphological and molecular analyses of samples collected from these specific localities.

Microbiomes, diet flexibility, and the spread of a beetle parasite of honey bees.

Invasive pests may disturb and destructively reformat the local ecosystem. The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, originated in Africa and has expanded to America, Australia, Europe, and Asia. A key factor facilitating its fast global expansion is its ability to subsist on diverse food inside and outside honey bee colonies. SHBs feed on various plant fruits and exudates in the environment while searching for bee hives. After sneaking into a bee hive, they switch their diet to honey, pollen, and bee larvae. How SHBs survive on such a broad range of food remains unclear. In this study, we simulated the outside and within hive stages by providing banana and hive resources and quantified the SHB associated microbes adjusted by the diet. We found that SHBs fed on bananas were colonized by microbes coding more carbohydrate-active enzymes and a higher alpha diversity than communities from SHBs feeding on hive products or those collected directly from bee hives. SHBs fed on bananas and those collected from the hive showed high symbiont variance, indicated by the beta diversity. Surprisingly, we found the honey bee core symbiont Snodgrassella alvi in the guts of SHBs collected in bee hives. To determine the role of S. alvi in SHB biology, we inoculated SHBs with a genetically tagged culture of S. alvi, showing that this symbiont is a likely transient of SHBs. In contrast, the fungus Kodamaea ohmeri is the primary commensal of SHBs. Diet-based microbiome shifts are likely to play a key role in the spread and success of SHBs.

The efficacy of clove oil to manage Varroa destructor and Apocephalus borealis, in Apis mellifera L. colony

Clove oil is a natural, eco-friendly, and highly effective odorant for triggering hygienic behavior in the colonies of Apis mellifera. Bees with highly hygienic behavior can quickly remove Varroa destructors and other enemies of bee hives. The estimation of hygienic behavior is estimated by a pin-killed method. 24 hours of experiments were conducted for observation at different months. Observed significant difference at 3 hours (P ˂ 0.001) and a non- significant difference at 6,9 and 24 hours (P > 0.09), (P > 0.014,) and (P >0.5) for the opened cells. For the cleared cells there has been observed significant difference at 3 and 6 hours (P ˂ 0.03) and (P ˂ 0.04), non- significant difference at 9 and 24 hours (P > 0.25) and (P > 0.012). clove oil also has acaricidal properties which is very effective in controlling Varroa mites and other parasites of honey bees. For the trapping of Varroa destructor and Apocephalus borealis, the sticky board method was used, in which a petroleum jelly-coated sheet was inserted at the bottom board for the trapping of mites and flies can be controlled within a week, highly significant differences observed in the first 3 days, P-values are respectively (P ˂ 0.00013), (P ˂ 0.0011), and (P ˂ 0.01), on the fifth, sixth and seventh day no significant difference discern. Mites could control within 40 days, there has been no significant difference between the first and last week, and notice a significant difference between the second and third week (P ˂ 0.0025).

Effects of lithium on locomotor activity and circadian rhythm of honey bees

Lithium has been considered a potential acaricidal agent against the honey bee (Apis mellifera) parasite Varroa. It is known that lithium suppresses elevated activity and regulates circadian rhythms and light response when administered to humans as a primary therapeutic chemical for bipolar disorder and to other bipolar syndrome model organisms, given the crucial role of timing in the bee's foraging activity and the alternating sunlight vs dark colony environment bees are exposed, we explored the influence of lithium on locomotor activity (LMA) and circadian rhythm of honey bees. We conducted acute and chronic lithium administration experiments, altering light conditions and lithium doses to assess LMA and circadian rhythm changes. We fed bees one time 10 μl sucrose solution with 0, 50, 150, and 450 mM LiCl in the acute application experiment and 0, 1, 5, and 10 mmol/kg LiCl ad libitum in bee candy in the chronic application experiment. Both acute and chronic lithium treatments significantly decreased the induced LMA under constant light. Chronic lithium treatment disrupted circadian rhythmicity in constant darkness. The circadian period was lengthened by lithium treatment under constant light. We discuss the results in the context of Varroa control and lithium's effect on bipolar disorder.

High temperatures augment inhibition of parasites by a honey bee gut symbiont.

Temperature affects growth, metabolism, and interspecific interactions in microbial communities. Within animal hosts, gut bacterial symbionts can provide resistance to parasitic infections. Both infection and populations of symbionts can be shaped by the host body temperature. However, the effects of temperature on the antiparasitic activities of gut symbionts have seldom been explored. The Lactobacillus-rich gut microbiota of facultatively endothermic honey bees is subject to seasonal and ontogenetic changes in host temperature that could alter the effects of symbionts against parasites. We used cell cultures of a Lactobacillus symbiont and an important trypanosomatid gut parasite of honey bees to test the potential for temperature to shape parasite-symbiont interactions. We found that symbionts showed greater heat tolerance than parasites and chemically inhibited parasite growth via production of acids. Acceleration of symbiont growth and acid production at high temperatures resulted in progressively stronger antiparasitic effects across a temperature range typical of bee colonies. Consequently, the presence of symbionts reduced both the peak growth rate and heat tolerance of parasites. Substantial changes in parasite-symbiont interactions were evident over a temperature breadth that parallels changes in diverse animals exhibiting infection-related fevers and the amplitude of circadian temperature variation typical of endothermic birds and mammals, implying the frequent potential for temperature to alter symbiont-mediated resistance to parasites in endo- and ectothermic hosts. Results suggest that the endothermic behavior of honey bees could enhance the impacts of gut symbionts on parasites, implicating thermoregulation as a reinforcer of core symbioses and possibly microbiome-mediated antiparasitic defense. IMPORTANCE Two factors that shape the resistance of animals to infection are body temperature and gut microbiota. However, temperature can also alter interactions among microbes, raising the question of whether and how temperature changes the antiparasitic effects of gut microbiota. Honey bees are agriculturally important hosts of diverse parasites and infection-mitigating gut microbes. They can also socially regulate their body temperatures to an extent unusual for an insect. We show that high temperatures found in honey bee colonies augment the ability of a gut bacterial symbiont to inhibit the growth of a common bee parasite, reducing the parasite's ability to grow at high temperatures. This suggests that fluctuations in colony and body temperatures across life stages and seasons could alter the protective value of bees' gut microbiota against parasites, and that temperature-driven changes in gut microbiota could be an underappreciated mechanism by which temperature-including endothermy and fever-alters animal infection.

Matrix metalloproteinase 2 contributes to adult eclosion and immune response in the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida.

During the pupal-adult eclosion process of holometabolous insects, the old cuticle is shed and replaced by a completely different new cuticle that requires tanning and expansion, along with extensive extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. In vertebrates, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a class of zinc-dependent endopeptidases, play key roles in regulating the ECM that surrounds cells. However, little is known about these extracellular proteinases available in insects. The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, is a widespread invasive parasite of honey bees. In this study, 6 MMP homologs were identified in the SHB genome. RNA interference experiments showed that all 6 AtMmps are not required for the larval-pupal transition, only AtMmp2 was essential for pupal-adult eclosion in SHB. Knockdown of AtMmp2 resulted in eclosion defects and wing expansion failure, as well as mortality within 3d of adult eclosion. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that knockdown of AtMmp2 significantly increased expression of the Toll and Imd pathways, chitin metabolism, and cross-linking (such as the pro-phenoloxidase activating cascade pathway and the tyrosine-mediated cuticle sclerotization and pigmentation pathway). These data revealed evolutionarily conserved functions of Mmp2 in controlling adult eclosion and wing expansion, also provided a preliminary exploration of the novel function of regulating Toll and Imd pathways, as well as new insights into how MMPs regulate insect development and defense barriers.

Pesticide contamination of beeswax from managed honey bee colonies in New York State.

The New York State (NYS) beekeeping industry generated >$11M worth of honey in 2020 and >$300M in pollination services to agriculture annually. Bees are frequently exposed to pesticides through foraging and husbandry practices. Lipophilic pesticides can remain in beeswax for extended periods. We analyzed for pesticides in wax comb samples collected from NYS apiaries at the end of the growing season, comparing residue numbers and concentrations among beekeepers of different operation scales: commercial beekeepers (>300 colonies), sideliners (50-299 colonies), and hobbyists (<50 colonies). We analyzed samples collected from 72 managed honey bee colonies for 92 insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Pesticides were detected in all samples and included 34 fungicides, 33 insecticides, and 22 herbicides. Each wax sample contained 7-35 different residues (x¯ = 17.8 residues). Wax from colonies managed by commercial beekeepers contained the most residues (x¯ = 21.9 residues), hobbyists were second (x¯ = 16.3 residues), and sideliners had the fewest (x¯ = 11.7 residues). Nearly all wax samples (98.6%) contained the pesticide synergist piperonyl butoxide, most samples (86%) contained common varroacides used to control honey bee parasites, including coumaphos and amitraz breakdown products, and 93.1% contained the fungicide difenoconazole. We detected 34 fungicides, 7 of which were found in 50% or more of the samples. We detected 22 herbicides. We found pesticide contamination of beeswax to be common, with commercial beekeepers experiencing the greatest contamination.

Consequences of microsporidian prior exposure for virus infection outcomes and bumble bee host health.

Host-parasite interactions do not occur in a vacuum, but in connected multi-parasite networks that can result in co-exposures and coinfections of individual hosts. These can affect host health and disease ecology, including disease outbreaks. However, many host-parasite studies examine pairwise interactions, meaning we still lack a general understanding of the influence of co-exposures and coinfections. Using the bumble bee Bombus impatiens, we study the effects of larval exposure to a microsporidian Nosema bombi, implicated in bumble bee declines, and adult exposure to Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus (IAPV), an emerging infectious disease from honey bee parasite spillover. We hypothesize that infection outcomes will be modified by co-exposure or coinfection. Nosema bombi is a potentially severe, larval-infecting parasite, and we predict that prior exposure will result in decreased host resistance to adult IAPV infection. We predict double parasite exposure will also reduce host tolerance of infection, as measured by host survival. Although our larval Nosema exposure mostly did not result in viable infections, it partially reduced resistance to adult IAPV infection. Nosema exposure also negatively affected survival, potentially due to a cost of immunity in resisting the exposure. There was a significant negative effect of IAPV exposure on survivorship, but prior Nosema exposure did not alter this survival outcome, suggesting increased tolerance given the higher IAPV infections in the bees previously exposed to Nosema. These results again demonstrate that infection outcomes can be non-independentwhen multiple parasites are present, even when exposure to one parasite does not result in a substantial infection.

Prevalence of Adult Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Pests and Pathogens in the Five Beekeeping Regions of Mexico.

Mexico is a major honey producer, but not much information exists about the health status of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in the country. This study was conducted to determine the sanitary status of adult honey bees in Mexico's five beekeeping regions. Samples from 369 apiaries were diagnosed to identify pathogens such as Varroa destructor, which was quantified, Acarapis woodi, Nosema spp., and five viruses. Colonies were also inspected for the presence of the small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida. Varroa destructor was found in 83.5% of the apiaries, with the Pacific Coast region having the highest prevalence (>95%) and rates (4.5% ± 0.6). Acarapis woodi was detected in only one apiary from the Pacific Coast, whereas Nosema spp. were prevalent in 48.5% of the apiaries, with the highest and lowest frequencies in the Yucatan Peninsula and North regions (64.6% and 10.2%, respectively). For viruses, deformed wing virus (DWV) was detected in 26.1% of the apiaries, with the highest frequency in the Pacific Coast region (44.7%). Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) was diagnosed in 3.2% of the samples and sacbrood bee virus (SBV) in 23.3% of them, with the highest frequency in the High Plateau region (36.4%). Chronic bee paralysis and Kashmir bee viruses were not detected. SHB prevalence was 25.2% nationwide, with the highest frequency in the Yucatan Peninsula (39.2%). This study shows that the most common parasites of adult honey bees in Mexico are V. destructor and Nosema spp., and that the most prevalent virus is DWV, whereas SHB is highly prevalent in the Yucatan Peninsula. This information could be useful to design disease control strategies for honey bee colonies in different regions of Mexico.

국내 꿀벌에서 Lotmaria passim 검출

Apis mellifera, also known as the western honey bee, is one of the most important pollinators of flowering plants, including many agricultural crops. In Korea, the number of honey bee pollinations have been fluctuating in recent years. Several honey bee parasites have been presumed as probable causes of decline. Lotmaria passim is the most virulent trypanosome parasite which usually infects the A. mellifera intestine. After first report in 1911, L. passim widely present in South America and Europe including Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Spain. However, the presence of this virulent trypanosome is not reported in Korea before. The aim of the present work was to provide the evidence of detection of the L. passim from A. mellifera in Korean agriculture. A. mellifera from three sites; Gwangju, Yangpyung and Toechon was ground with liquid nitrogen and mRNA was extracted. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) was used to investigate the presence of L. passim nucleic acid. The amplification products were also sequenced and analyzed. L. passim was detected from honey bee in Yangpyung. PCR products were sequenced and the nucleotide sequence was aligned to the complete L. passim sequence from NCBI database, and the sequence were revealed 100% identity. The honey bee parasitic trypanosome L. passim was found in the Korea honey bee first time and should be considered as a potential contributor of honey bee infectious disease in Korea.