Parallel Process Latent Growth Curve Research Articles

The developmental trajectories of teacher autonomy support and adolescent mental well-being and academic stress

AbstractThis study investigated the developmental impact of teacher autonomy support on changes in students’ mental well-being and academic stress throughout upper secondary school. The sample consisted of 1453 Norwegian students (baseline Mage = 17.00; 60.6% girls; 80.9% Norwegian-born). The unconditional latent growth curve model results showed that perceived teacher autonomy support and mental well-being decreased during the three-year-long education. Academic stress, on the other hand, increased during this period. Findings from the parallel process latent growth curve model indicated that the initial status and change in teacher autonomy support were positively and negatively related to the initial levels and trajectories of mental well-being and academic stress, respectively. Girls experienced a higher level of academic stress and lower mental well-being and teacher autonomy support at the beginning of upper secondary school. Students with a higher socioeconomic status reported higher initial mental well-being and teacher autonomy support than others but also a more rapid decline in teacher autonomy support throughout upper secondary school. This study provides new insights into academic, psychological, and affective processes and their interrelationships during upper secondary school.

Association between positive youth development and non-suicidal self-injury: A longitudinal survey of children and adolescents in southwest China, 2019–21

BackgroundNon-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) could lead to serious problems (exp. suicidal attempts) among children and adolescents. Positive youth development (PYD) focuses on comprehensive development instead of a single problem. This study aims to explore the longitudinal relationship between NSSI and PYD among Chinese children and adolescents. MethodsThe longitudinal study used the three-wave dataset from the Chengdu Positive Child Development (CPCD) in southwest China between 2019 and 2021, including 10,370 participants. The parallel process Latent Growth Curve Model (LGCM) was utilized to analyze the relationship between PYD and NSSI across time. ResultsThe study results demonstrated that the initial level of NSSI is negatively associated with the initial value (β = −0.730, p < 0.01) and the growth rate (β = −0.012, p < 0.01) of PYD, and the development rate of the two variables are negatively related to each other(β = −0.120, p < 0.01). LimitationsThe specific relationships between PYD attributes and NSSI should be explored in the future. And the cultural variation among countries deserves more research. Moreover, the dynamic cohort research leads to a relatively high loss of participants. ConclusionsPYD and NSSI are closely associated among children and adolescents. Instead of playing a protective role, PYD tends to be predicted by NSSI behaviors over time.

Technical and relational process in MI sessions with a sample of Hispanic/Latinx adults who engage in heavy drinking: A latent growth mediation model

The current study tests the Motivational Interviewing (MI) technical and relational hypotheses in a sample of Hispanic/Latinx adults (N = 276) who engage in heavy alcohol consumption. MI causal theory hypothesizes that therapist use of MI consistent skills (i.e., technical hypothesis) and embodiment of the MI Spirit (i.e., relational hypothesis) will elicit client change talk, which is a putative mechanism of positive client outcome after the session. We tested these associations in a rigorous parallel process latent growth curve mediation modeling framework. The data are from a completed randomized clinical trial of a culturally-adapted (CAMI) versus un-adapted MI targeting hazardous alcohol use and consequences. Results. The unconditional growth models for the mediator (i.e., proportion of change talk relative to sustain talk) and two study outcomes (i.e., percent of heavy drinking days; alcohol-related consequences) showed a linear effect over a 12-month period with a slower rate of growth at later timepoints. Contrary to expectations, the latent growth mediation models did not show relationships between MI-consistent skills (i.e., technical predictor) or latent MI Spirit (i.e., relational indicator) and the slope factor for proportion change talk. The slope factor for proportion change talk was also not associated with the slope factors for percent heavy drinking and consequences over follow-up. Conclusions. In this novel population for MI process analysis, the technical and relational hypotheses were not supported. Studies that are exploratory may be needed to further investigate the causal model in populations that are not often represented in MI process research.

Longitudinal associations among physical activity and sitting with endocrine symptoms and quality of life in breast cancer survivors: A latent growth curve analysis.

Adjuvant endocrine therapy (AET) often causes debilitating endocrine symptoms that compromise quality of life (QOL) in women diagnosed with hormone receptor positive breast cancer (BC). We examined whether greater levels of physical activity (PA) or prolonged sitting were associated with reduced side effects or worse side effects of AET, respectively. We used parallel process latent growth curve models to examine longitudinal patterns in PA and sitting behaviors, and their association with endocrine symptoms and QOL over 3 years of follow-up in 554 female BC survivors undergoing AET. At baseline, women were a mean age of 59 years, mostly white (72%), with overweight/obesity (67%), and approximately 50% were within 1 year of diagnosis. Unconditional models showed significant increases in PA (p < 0.01) over time but no change in sitting. Endocrine symptoms, general and BC-specific QOL all significantly worsened over time (p < 0.01). Parallel process models showed no cross-sectional or longitudinal associations between PA and endocrine symptoms. Higher levels of baseline PA were associated with higher baseline QOL scores (p = 0.01) but changes in PA were not associated with changes in QOL. Conversely, more sitting at baseline was associated with worse endocrine symptoms, general and BC specific QOL (ps <0.01). At baseline, having better QOL scores was associated with increases in sitting (ps <0.01), while having worse endocrine symptoms was associated with a slower rate of increase in sitting (p < 0.01). Increases in sitting time were also associated with a slower rate of increase in endocrine symptoms (p = 0.017). Model fit statistics (x2, CFI, TLI, SRMR) were acceptable. Both PA and sitting behaviors are important for the management of symptoms and in maintaining QOL in BC survivors. Women with already high symptom burden do not increase sitting time further but having better general and BC specific QOL to begin with means a greater decline over time.

Associations among Parental Phubbing, Self-esteem, and Adolescents' Proactive and Reactive Aggression: A Three-Year Longitudinal Study in China.

Parental phubbing, as a new risk factor for adolescents' healthy development, has been noticed by scholars. However, few studies have clarified the associations between parental phubbing and adolescents' proactive and reactive aggression and the potential mediating mechanisms. To address the gaps, the current study explored the longitudinal associations among parental phubbing, self-esteem, and adolescents' proactive and reactive aggression by using the parallel process latent growth curve model and the cross-lagged panel model. The current study involved 2407 Chinese adolescents (girls were 1202, Mage = 12.75, SD = 0.58 at baseline, range = 11-16). Results indicated that parental phubbing significantly positively predicted adolescents' reactive aggression but not proactive aggression. Self-esteem significantly predicted the adolescents' reactive and proactive aggression. Self-esteem significantly mediated the associations between parental phubbing and adolescents' proactive and reactive aggression, respectively. These findings suggest that intervening with parental phubbing is a promising way to reduce adolescents' reactive aggression, and promoting adolescents' self-esteem is an effective approach to prevent their proactive and reactive aggression.

The positive feedback loop between academic self-efficacy, academic initiative, and Grade Point Average: a parallel process latent growth curve model

This study investigates the associations between students’ developmental changes in academic self-efficacy, academic initiative, and grade point average (GPA) during a three-year upper secondary education. The sample consisted of 1453 students aged 16–19 (60.6% girls; baseline mean age = 17.00, SD = .91; 56.1% high perceived family wealth; and 74.9% Norwegian-born). To explore how changes in academic self-efficacy, academic initiative, and GPA were related, we investigated a theoretical parallel process latent growth curve model. The results implied that, during upper secondary school, academic self-efficacy declined, while academic initiative and GPA remained stable. We found possible ceiling effects within and between several of the study’s constructs. The main finding was support for a positive feedback loop between the developmental trajectories of academic self-efficacy, academic initiative, and GPA. The present study adds new insight that should be taken into consideration when promoting positive educational development during late secondary school. Highlights Academic self-efficacy declines during upper secondary school, while academic initiative and grade point average remains stable. Parallel process latent growth curve model analysis. Possible ceiling effects within and between several of the study's factors. Positive associations between the trajectories of academic self-efficacy, academic initiative, and grade point average.

Can restricting while-in-bed smartphone use improve sleep quality via decreasing pre-sleep cognitive arousal among Chinese undergraduates with problematic smartphone use? Longitudinal mediation analysis using parallel process latent growth curve modeling

Background and aimProblematic smartphone use (PSU) has become a global public health problem. Excessive while-in-bed smartphone use may result in poor sleep quality. The present study aimed to examine whether restricting while-in-bed smartphone use can improve sleep quality and the mediating role of pre-sleep cognitive arousal in this process. MethodsA total 152 Chinese undergraduates with symptoms of PSU (Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version [SAS-SV] > 31) were recruited and randomly assigned to the intervention group (N = 76) and the control group (N = 76) for a 4-week follow-up experiment. Sleep quality (assessed by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index) and pre-sleep cognitive arousal (assessed by the Pre-sleep Arousal Scale-Cognitive Arousal) were measured at baselime, Week1, Week2, Week3, and Week4. The longitudinal mediation model was analyzed using parallel process latent growth curve modeling. The significance of indirect effect was tested by 95% biascorrected accelerated confidence intervals on the basis of 5000 bootstrap samples. ResultsThe initial level of sleep quality was positively associated with the initial level of pre-sleep cognitive arousal. The intervention decreased pre-sleep cognitive arousal and increased sleep quality. The slope of pre-sleep cognitive arousal was positively associated with the slope of sleep quality. The mediating effect of pre-sleep cognitive arousal was significant. DiscussionRestricting while-in-bed smartphone use can improve sleep quality via decreasing pre-sleep cognitive arousal among Chinese undergraduates with symptoms of PSU. These results suggests that restricting while-in-bed smartphone use is a potential remedy for sleep disturbance induced by PSU.

Trajectories of social isolation and depressive symptoms in mid- and later life: a parallel process latent growth curve analysis

Objectives Social isolation has subjective and objective dimensions. This study explored the change trajectories of both dimensions of isolation and depressive symptoms and their interrelationships in terms of levels and changes over time. Methods Data were drawn from the 2006–2018 Health and Retirement Study, involving a nationally representative sample of middle-aged and older adults (N = 7890). Parallel process latent growth curve models were used. Results Over time, objective isolation displayed a non-linear upward trend, subjective isolation displayed a non-linear downward trend, and depressive symptoms remained relatively stable. More objectively isolated people experienced smaller increases in objective isolation and more subjectively isolated people experienced smaller decreases in subjective isolation. Such negative intercept-slope associations were not observed for depressive symptoms. Net of sociodemographic characteristics, physical disabilities, functional limitations, and chronic diseases, each isolation dimension was associated with the level of depressive symptoms. But only the rate of change in subjective isolation was positively associated with that of depressive symptoms. Conclusion The initial level of objective isolation may be one of the common origins of subjective isolation and depressive symptoms. Recognition of such shared origins is important in mitigating the synergistic and deleterious effects of loneliness and depression in middle-aged and older adults.

The Impact of Omitting Confounders in Parallel Process Latent Growth Curve Mediation Models: Three Sensitivity Analysis Approaches

Parallel process latent growth curve mediation models (PP-LGCMMs) are frequently used to longitudinally investigate the mediation effects of treatment on the level and change of outcome through the level and change of mediator. An important but often violated assumption in empirical PP-LGCMM analysis is the absence of omitted confounders of the relationships among treatment, mediator, and outcome. In this study, we analytically examined how omitting pretreatment confounders impacts the inference of mediation from the PP-LGCMM. Using the analytical results, we developed three sensitivity analysis approaches for the PP-LGCMM, including the frequentist, Bayesian, and Monte Carlo approaches. The three approaches help investigate different questions regarding the robustness of mediation results from the PP-LGCMM, and handle the uncertainty in the sensitivity parameters differently. Applications of the three sensitivity analyses are illustrated using a real-data example. A user-friendly Shiny web application is developed to conduct the sensitivity analyses.

Longitudinal changes in gray matter correspond to changes in cognition across the lifespan: implications for theories of cognition

The present study examines the association between gray matter volume and cognition. Studies that have examined this issue have focused primarily on older adults, whereas the present study examines the issue across the entire adult lifespan. A total of 463 adults, ages 20–88 at first assessment, were followed longitudinally across three assessments over 8–10years. Significant individual differences in a general cognition measure comprised of measures of speed of processing, working memory, and episodic memory were observed, as well as in measures of cortical and subcortical gray matter. Parallel process latent growth curve modeling showed a reliable relationship between decreases in cortical matter and cognitive decline across the entire adult lifespan, which persisted after controlling for age effects. Implications of these findings in relation to progression toward dementia, risk assessment, cognitive intervention, and environmental factors are discussed, as well as implications for theories of cognitive aging.

Intergroup Contact Alleviates Loneliness: The Extensive Effect of Common Ingroup Identity.

Previous studies show that intergroup contact, through common ingroup identity, has impact on intergroup processes such as reducing intergroup bias, improving intergroup relations, etc. The effect of intergroup contact on individual psychological process (through common ingroup identity), however, needs further exploration. Based on the positive effect of both intergroup contact and ingroup identification on mental health and well-being, this article proposes and tests a new model of individual loneliness reduction through intergroup contact by promoting common ingroup identity. A total of 263 majority ethnic members and 275 minority ethnic members from China participated in the survey. Intergroup contact, common ingroup identity and loneliness were measured at three time-points (T1-T3) over an 8-month period. Longitudinal mediation analysis and parallel process Latent Growth Curve Model for mediation are used for the examination of the indirect effect of common ingroup identity. Longitudinal mediation analysis showed that intergroup contact quality at T1 positively predicted common ingroup identity at T2, and common ingroup identity at T2 alleviated loneliness at T3. Intergroup contact quality at T1 was indirectly linked to loneliness at T3 via common ingroup identity at T2. The parallel process latent growth curve model for mediation confirmed the robustness of the indirect effect of common ingroup identity. In addition, the growth rate of the quality of intergroup contact increased the growth rate of common ingroup identity, but reduced the growth rate of loneliness. The current study revealed the protectiveness of intergroup contact and common ingroup identity on loneliness, viz., intergroup contact reduces individual loneliness by promoting common ingroup identity, the implication being that intergroup contact and common ingroup identity should be taken into account in intervening process of loneliness prevention so that an individual's physical and mental health could be better safeguarded.

Intraindividual change in pain tolerance and negative affect over 20 years: findings from the MIDUS study

ABSTRACT Pain tolerance, defined as the ability to withstand physical pain states, is a clinically important psychobiological process associated with several deleterious outcomes, including increased pain experience, mental health problems, physical health problems, and substance use. A significant body of experimental work indicates that negative affect is associated with pain tolerance, such that increased negative affect is associated with decreased pain tolerance. Although research has documented the associations between pain tolerance and negative affect, little work has examined these associations over time, and how change in pain tolerance is related to changes in negative affect. Therefore, the current study examined the relationship between intraindividual change in self-reported pain tolerance and intraindividual change in negative affect over 20 years in a large, longitudinal, observation-based national sample of adults (n = 4,665, M age = 46.78, SD =12.50, 53.8% female). Results from parallel process latent growth curve models indicated that slope of pain tolerance and negative affect were associated with each other over time (r = .272, 95% CI [.08, .46] p = .006). Cohen’s d effect size estimates provide initial, correlational evidence that changes in pain tolerance may precede changes in negative affect. Given the relevance of pain tolerance to deleterious health outcomes, better understanding how individual difference factors, including negative affect, influence pain tolerance over time, are clinically important to reduce disease-related burden.

EFFECTS OF A SPECIFIC NARRATIVE GROUP PRACTICE ON HEALTH OUTCOMES OF CHINESE OLDER ADULTS: AN RCT STUDY

Abstract In view of the rising chronicity during older adulthood, a specific narrative group practice is developed to improve well-being. Narrative therapy (NT), views people as experts in their own lives, and have accrued their life wisdom through their lifespan. To test its effects, a randomized controlled trial design was used to assess and compare outcomes between the intervention and waitlist-controlled group. A total of 157 older adults were recruited, 82 of which was randomly assigned to 9 intervention groups to receive four 2-hour NT sessions, recording difficult life circumstances, through narrative conversations, which made them stronger. Quantitative assessment of well-being, and depression were conducted at baseline (T0), at the end of treatment (T1), and at two (T2) and 8 months after treatment (T3). By employing the SEM parallel-process latent growth curve model, the results from the 4 waves of longitudinal data suggesting that the NT intervention have positive impact the participants, in particular the improved well-being of the participants contributed to the reduction of depressive symptoms with standardised estimate -0.502, p = 0.007. The estimated model fulfilled the criteria of mediocre fit, with TLI = 0.943; CFI = 0.969; RMSEA = 0.053. No adverse reaction was recorded in any of the cases mentioned at all study-sites. These findings have significant theoretical and practice implications for both health and social care professions. NT offers an effective practice to develop a strength- and meaning-based group practice and ground a new theory for to develop a constructive perspective to late life development.

Longitudinal relationships between conduct problems, depressive symptoms, and school dropout

School dropout can be an ongoing process of academic failure and disengagement starting as early as elementary school. Given the multitude of factors involved and the importance of early identification of vulnerabilities, this study examined whether (a) initial levels of conduct problems and depressive symptoms predicted school dropout, (b) the rate of change in conduct problems and depressive symptoms predicted dropout, (c) the interaction between trajectories of conduct problems and depressive symptoms affected the likelihood of dropout, and (d) whether there were sex differences in these associations. Using a dataset of 364 children ages 6–9 (T1) years who had displayed conduct problems, mean trajectories of conduct problems and depressive symptoms over 6 years were drawn using parallel process latent growth curve modeling. Results showed that both the initial levels of and rate of change in conduct problems predicted dropout, whereas trajectories of depressive symptoms did not. The interaction between trajectories of conduct problems and depressive symptoms was non-significant and sex differences were not observed. These results suggest that, for boys and girls presenting early conduct problems, although a higher initial levels of conduct problems increases the risk of school dropout, a larger decrease in these problems over time may reduce this likelihood. Recognizing and treating conduct problems consistently may be crucial in reducing the risk of dropout in children with early-onset issues.

Trajectories of Emerging Adults' Binge Drinking and Depressive Symptoms and Associations With Sexual Violence Victimization: Examining Differences by Sexual and Gender Minority Status.

We examined longitudinal associations between binge drinking (BD), depressive symptoms, and sexual violence (sexual harassment and sexual assault) among sexual and gender minority (SGM) and non-SGM emerging adults. Data were drawn from four annual web-based surveys of a diverse cohort of 2,553 emerging adults, spanning from approximately age 19 (2016) to age 22 (2020). About 18% were SGM individuals. We tested a multigroup parallel process latent growth curve model (recent depression symptoms; past-year BD) with time-varying covariates (past-year sexual harassment; sexual assault) to determine associations of sexual violence with BD and depression outcomes over time, and whether growth curves and associations differed by SGM status. For both SGM and non-SGM emerging adults, past-year sexual harassment was associated with depressive symptoms at each time point, but harassment was not associated with BD. For both groups, sexual assault was associated with both depressive symptoms and BD. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine longitudinal, contemporaneous associations of sexual violence (including both harassment and assault as distinct constructs), with BD and depressive symptoms among racially and ethnically diverse emerging adults, comparing SGM and non-SGM groups. Although our models do not disentangle directionality or causality, the findings suggest the need to address sexual violence victimization (assault and harassment) in the context of depression screening and treatment, and vice versa. We discuss a number of intervention strategies currently in use for an implicitly non-SGM general population that could be adapted for greater inclusion of and relevance to SGM populations.

Elucidating treatment targets and mediators within a confirmatory efficacy trial: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy vs. light therapy for winter depression

BackgroundThis study is a confirmatory efficacy trial of two treatments for winter seasonal affective disorder (SAD): SAD-tailored group cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT-SAD) and light therapy (LT). In our previous efficacy trial, post-treatment outcomes for CBT-SAD and LT were very similar, but CBT-SAD was associated with fewer depression recurrences two winters later than LT (27.3% in CBT-SAD vs. 45.6% in LT). CBT-SAD engaged and altered a specific mechanism of action, seasonal beliefs, which mediated CBT-SAD’s acute antidepressant effects and CBT-SAD’s enduring benefit over LT. Seasonal beliefs are theoretically distinct from LT’s assumed target and mechanism: correction of circadian phase. This study applies the experimental therapeutics approach to determine how each treatment works when it is effective and to identify the best candidates for each. Biomarkers of LT’s target and effect include circadian phase angle difference and the post-illumination pupil response. Biomarkers of CBT-SAD’s target and effect include decreased pupillary and sustained frontal gamma-band EEG responses to seasonal words, which are hypothesized as biomarkers of seasonal beliefs, reflecting less engagement with seasonal stimuli following CBT-SAD. In addition to determining change mechanisms, this study tests the efficacy of a “switch” decision rule upon recurrence to inform clinical decision-making in practice.MethodsAdults with SAD (target N = 160) will be randomzied to 6-weeks of CBT-SAD or LT in winter 1; followed in winter 2; and, if a depression recurrence occurs, offered cross-over into the alternate treatment (i.e., switch from LT➔CBT-SAD or CBT-SAD➔LT). All subjects will be followed in winter 3. Biomarker assessments occur at pre-, mid-, and post-treatment in winter 1, at winter 2 follow-up (and again at mid-/post-treatment for those crossed-over), and at winter 3 follow-up. Primary efficacy analyses will test superiority of CBT-SAD over LT on depression recurrence status (the primary outcome). Mediation analyses will use parallel process latent growth curve modeling.DiscussionConsistent with the National Institute of Mental Health’s priorities for demonstrating target engagement at the level of Research Domain Criteria-relevant biomarkers, this work aims to confirm the targets and mechanisms of LT and CBT-SAD to maximize the impact of future dissemination efforts.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03691792. Registered on October 2, 2018.

Early pubertal development and deviant behavior: A three-year longitudinal study among early adolescents

According to a life history perspective, deviant behaviors are predicted by fast life history strategies and early sexual maturation is considered a marker of the underlying fast life history strategy. The aim of the present three-year longitudinal study was to investigate the influence of early pubertal maturation on deviant behaviors among early adolescents. A sample of Italian early adolescents (n = 614; 51% were male participants) completed a survey questionnaire three times, in the second term of their first (Mage = 11.31, SD = 0.49), second, and third middle school grades. Using a parallel process latent growth curve model, the results revealed that baseline levels of early pubertal development did not predict change over time in deviant behavior. In addition, the rate of change of pubertal maturation did not predict change over time in deviant behavior. Finally, we found that the relationship between the rate of change of pubertal maturation and change over time in deviant behavior is moderated by baseline levels of deviant behavior. Overall, findings suggest that the notion of a direct relationship between early pubertal maturation and deviant behavior among early adolescents, in general, is not supported.

The shame spiral of addiction: Negative self-conscious emotion and substance use.

The bidirectional associations between negative self-conscious emotions such as shame and guilt and substance use are poorly understood. Longitudinal research is needed to examine the causes, consequences, and moderators of negative self-conscious emotions in people who use substances. Using parallel process latent growth curve modeling, we assessed bidirectional associations between shame and guilt and substance use (i.e., number of days in the past 30 used stimulants, alcohol to intoxication, other substances, or injected drugs) as well as the moderating role of positive emotion. Emotions were assessed using the Differential Emotions Scale. The sample included 110 sexual minority cisgender men with biologically confirmed recent methamphetamine use, enrolled in a randomized controlled trial in San Francisco, CA. Participants self-reported emotions and recent substance use behaviors over six time points across 15 months. Higher initial levels of shame were associated with slower decreases in stimulant use over time (b = 0.23, p = .041) and guilt was positively associated with stimulant use over time (β = 0.85, p < .0001). Initial levels of guilt and alcohol use were positively related (b = 0.29, p = .040), but over time, they had a negative relationship (β = -0.99, p < .0001). Additionally, higher initial levels of other drug use were associated with slower decreases in shame over time (b = 0.02, p = .041). All results were independent of depression, highlighting the specific role of self-conscious emotions. Shame and guilt are barriers to reducing stimulant use, and expanded efforts are needed to mitigate the deleterious effects of these self-conscious emotions in recovery from a stimulant use disorder.

Developmental changes in the frequency and functions of school-related communication with friends and family across high school: Effects on college enrollment.

As postsecondary education is an increasingly important developmental milestone for adolescents, it is critical to identify supports that help prepare youth for college. Building on evidence highlighting the role of parental input and guidance, the current study investigates how within-person changes in adolescent school-related communication (i.e., frequency of talking about school and educational planning) with friends and family across high school contribute to college preparedness and subsequent enrollment. Capitalizing on a diverse adolescent sample (N = 4,495), longitudinal analyses across high school showed that school-related communication with friends increased, but remained relatively stable with family, from Grades 9-12 (approximately ages 15-18 years). Parallel process latent growth curve modeling demonstrated that steeper increases in school-related communication with friends independently predicted college enrollment, consistently across racial/ethnic and parental education groups. Moreover, within-person changes in friend and family school-related communication across high school interacted in a compensatory fashion to predict grade point average and perceived college readiness at 12th grade. At a time of growing need for independence from parents, the findings highlight the positive developmental function of friends in helping adolescents reach a critical educational milestone. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Informal support and obligation contribute to fewer child behavior problems over time.

This study used longitudinal data from a sample of low-income mothers and their children to examine how informal support and obligation, or informal networks, contribute to children's behavior. We also tested the potential mediating role of maternal parenting stress. Many studies document the importance of informal support for maternal stress and child behavior to offset the negative impact of poverty for low-income families. Evidence suggests the importance of also considering the obligations that such informal support access may impart. Using data from the Welfare, Children, Families Study, a longitudinal study of diverse, low-income, urban mothers in three cities (n = 2,142), we used a parallel process latent growth curve model approach to examine how informal support and obligation contributed to maternal stress and child behavior. Models indicated that mothers with healthy safety nets, including informal support and manageable obligations, had children with fewer behavior problems, and parenting stress partially accounted for the positive effects. Results highlight the importance of considering reciprocity norms among low-income mothers; one-sided support or obligation can be problematic for both maternal stress and child behavior problems. Results suggest the merit of empirically supported interventions to teach relationship skills and facilitate healthy relationships among low-income mothers.