Parallel-process Growth Curve Model Research Articles

The Effect of the SystemCHANGETM Intervention on Systems Thinking in a Randomized Controlled Trial of Adult Kidney Transplant Recipients: A Secondary Data Analysis

Objective: The SystemCHANGE™ intervention is an approach that harnesses patients′ recurring personal systems of established routines of daily living, environments, and important others as reliable ′personalized system solutions′ to support habitual medication-taking and improve medication adherence. In a secondary data analysis, we (1) analyzed the association between the longitudinal trajectories of systems thinking and medication adherence, and (2) examined the extent that demographic characteristics and the SystemCHANGE™ intervention influenced these trajectories. Methods: Participants were ≥ 18 years of age who had received a kidney???only transplant, self???administered at least one prescribed immunosuppressive medication twice daily, had a functioning kidney transplant, were not in the hospital, and had no diagnosis that would immediately shorten the lifespan. We conducted a single???blinded (participants), 2???arm randomized controlled trial (RCT). An intervention group received the 6-month SystemCHANGETM intervention, and the attention-control group received the 6-month education intervention. Systems thinking was measured using the Systems Thinking Scale (adapted for patients). Results: The parallel process growth curve model with time-invariant predictors suggested that participants with higher levels of systems thinking at baseline demonstrated greater gains in systems thinking over time (r=0.407). White participants exhibited greater baseline levels of systems thinking than African-American participants (d=0.76). Participants assigned to the SystemCHANGE™ group maintained their medication adherence rates over time, whereas control counterparts demonstrated significantly different, declining trajectories of medication adherence (d=−0.41). Conclusion: We found shared co-variance between systems thinking and medication adherence and the SystemCHANGE™ intervention. The SystemCHANGE™ intervention was efficacious in improving and sustaining medication adherence in adult kidney transplant recipients.

Cigarette Smoking and Depression Among U.S. Veterans: Longitudinal Associations With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

Cigarette smoking and depression are associated with morbidity and mortality. Among veterans, approximately 22% are current smokers and 11%-15% have been diagnosed with depression. Although prior research suggests a strong association between smoking and depression among veterans, little research has examined trajectories of smoking and depressive symptoms and their correlates over time in this population. Using parallel process growth curve modeling, we examined the longitudinal relationship between smoking and depression and tested whether posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms predict smoking and depression trajectories over 18 months (February 2020-August 2021). Veterans were recruited for an online, longitudinal study and responded to surveys across five-time points (baseline N = 1230; retention = 79.3%-83.3% across waves). Associations indicated that more frequent smoking at baseline was associated with steeper increases in depression symptom severity, and greater depression severity at baseline was associated with a less steep decrease in smoking frequency over time. PTSD was associated with less smoking at time 1 but more frequent smoking at times 3-5 as well as greater depression across all time points. Findings provide support that the growth trajectories of smoking and depression are linked, and PTSD symptoms are associated with these trajectories among veterans. Addressing these factors simultaneously in veteran treatment centers or through tobacco cessation efforts may be beneficial. This study offers strong evidence that the growth trajectories of smoking and depression are linked, and PTSD symptoms affect these trajectories among veterans, who represent a largely understudied population despite high rates of substance use and mental health problems. Results of this study strengthen the case for a more integrated treatment approach in which both smoking and mental health concerns are simultaneously addressed, which may yield more beneficial physical health and clinical outcomes for post-9/11 veterans.

Parental Control and Adolescent Delinquency Based on Parallel Process Latent Growth Curve Modeling.

Although ample evidence demonstrates parental influences on delinquent behavior in adolescent years, few studies have examined how change in adolescent delinquency and change in parental behavior are related to each other, particularly in late adolescence. This study utilized survey data collected over three high school years (N = 3074 Grade 10 students; mean age = 15.57, SD = 0.74 at Time 1) to examine how change trajectory of adolescent-reported delinquency is related to change trajectory of adolescent perceived parental behavioral and psychological control using parallel process growth curve modeling. Results revealed that adolescent delinquency level was negatively associated with both parents’ behavioral control and positively associated with parents’ psychological control at Time 1 (Grade 10). However, adolescent delinquency increased in parallel with decreased parental behavioral control, but not a change in psychological control. Initial paternal behavioral control positively predicted a linear increase slope of adolescent delinquency while initial adolescent delinquency level also positively predicted a linear decrease slope of paternal behavioral control. These results highlight the parallel development of parents’ behavioral control and children’s delinquent behavior and delineate the reciprocal influence between paternal behavioral control and adolescent children’s delinquency.

Subjective Age at Work: Feeling Younger or Older Than One’s Actual Age Predicts Perceived Control and Motivation at Work

Abstract Using a life-span theoretical perspective, the present study examined how subjective age relates to perceived control and motivational investment in the work domain. Data from the Midlife in the United States National Study of Health and Well-Being (MIDUS I, II, and III; 1995–2013; n = 2,395) were analyzed using parallel process growth curve modeling. Our analyses used a mediation framework and focused on how changes in subjective age relate to changes in work-specific perceived control and motivational investment over time. Results suggested that feeling progressively younger than one’s actual age predicted increased levels of perceived control over and motivational investment in one’s work situation, as mediated by domain-general perceived control capacity and selective primary control striving, respectively. Results are discussed within the motivational theory of life-span development, specifically, how subjective age operates as a secondary control strategy that enhances or diminishes motivational investment and perceived control in work during midlife.

A parallel process latent growth model of narcissistic personality disorder symptoms and normal personality traits.

Although evidence from a number of longitudinal studies indicates a marked change in narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) symptoms over time, few studies have examined other psychological systems that may be related to this change. The current study uses data from the Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders to examine how change in NPD symptoms is related to change in normal personality trait trajectories using parallel process growth curve modeling. A total of 250 students provided information on their personality traits and NPD symptoms on 3 occasions over the course of 4 years. Results suggest that cross-sectionally, NPD symptoms are positively correlated with dominance, neuroticism, and openness. Longitudinally, however, NPD symptoms decrease in parallel with increases in conscientiousness and decreases in neuroticism. Importantly, these longitudinal relationships are not a simple replication of the cross-sectional relationships between these 2 systems. Rather, this pattern of change is consistent with trait profiles suggesting maturation in young adults and has implications for the temporal stability of NPD as a construct and the theoretical relationship between normal personality traits and personality disorder more generally. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Mediating Role of Coping Self-Efficacy in Hope Box Use and Suicidal Ideation Severity

In this study, we examined the indirect effect of the Virtual Hope Box (VHB) smartphone application on suicidal ideation, mediated through coping self-efficacy. A total of 117 veterans with suicidal ideation completed measures on coping self-efficacy and suicidal ideation at baseline and weeks 3, 6, and 12. Participants were randomly assigned to either the VHB or enhanced treatment as usual (eTAU) condition. Parallel process growth curve modeling (−0.20 [95% CI = −0.44, 0.00]) and auto-regressive modeling (−0.12 [95% CI = −0.35, −0.01]) revealed that a higher rate of change in coping self-efficacy in the VHB group was associated with a decrease in suicidal ideation severity, as compared to the eTAU group. Findings suggest that coping self-efficacy may be one mechanism by which the VHB operates to help reduce suicidal ideation. More broadly, the role of coping self-efficacy in reducing suicidal ideation is worthy of future study.

Trajectories of post-traumatic stress and externalizing psychopathology among maltreated foster care youth: A parallel process latent growth curve model

Few longitudinal studies have analyzed how violence exposure (e.g. child maltreatment, witnessing community violence) influence both externalizing and Post-Traumatic Stress (PTS) symptoms among children in foster care. Data from three waves of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (1999–2007) (NSCAW; National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect, 2002) were analyzed to investigate the change trajectories of both externalizing and PTS symptomatology among children with a substantiated report of child maltreatment by Child Protective Services (CPS) between October 1999 and December 2000. This study uses data collected at three time points: baseline and approximately 18 (Wave 3) and 36 (Wave 4) months post-baseline. The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) scale measured externalizing symptoms and the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder section of a version of the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC) provided the measure of current trauma-related symptoms or distress. Analyses were conducted using a parallel process growth curve model with a sample of n=280 maltreated youth between the ages of 8 and 15 following home removal. Findings revealed that initial levels of externalizing and PTS symptomatology were both significantly and positively related and co-develop over time. Externalizing symptom severity remained in the borderline range during the first two years in out-of-home care. Both direct and indirect forms of interpersonal violence exposure were associated with initial level of externalizing symptom and PTS symptom severity, respectively. Taken together, our results suggest an underlying process that links early violence exposure to the co-development and cumulative impact of PTS on externalizing behavior above and beyond experiences of maltreatment. We conclude by discussing the key points of intervention that result from a more nuanced understanding of the longitudinal relationship between PTS and externalizing symptoms and the effect of complex trauma on growth in these symptoms over time.

Longitudinal growth of post-traumatic stress and depressive symptoms following a child maltreatment allegation: An examination of violence exposure, family risk and placement type

Few longitudinal studies have analyzed how traumatic experiences (e.g. home removal, violence exposure) influence both depressive and Post-Traumatic Stress (PTS) symptoms in children involved with Child Protective Services (CPS). This study investigated the change trajectories of both depressive and PTS symptomatology as well as their associations over time, focusing on the effect of complex trauma. Data were obtained from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (1999–2007), a nationally representative study of children and adolescents who were referred to child protective services for alleged maltreatment. The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) scale measured depressive symptoms and the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder section of a version of the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC) provided the measure of current trauma-related symptoms or distress. Analyses were conducted using a parallel process growth curve model. The participants' initial levels of depressive and PTS symptomatology were significantly and positively related; furthermore, any changes in these two outcomes were also correlated longitudinally. The initial assessment of PTS symptoms significantly contributed to the advancement of more severe depressive symptoms over time. No significant differences were found between youth who remained in the home and those removed from the home. However, violence exposure, sexual abuse, gender and age were significant predictors of level and rate of change in both PTS and depressive symptoms. PTS growth factors mediated the longitudinal relationship between witnessing severe violence and depressive symptoms. The findings suggest a complex developmental association between depressive and PTS symptomatology among CPS-involved youth that is rooted in early childhood experiences with complex trauma.

Preschool Needle Pain Responding: Establishing 'Normal'.

This study provides descriptive data for preschool vaccination pain responding as well as examines longitudinal relationships over early childhood. Demonstrating significantly different pain patterns from infancy, 25% of preschoolers are displaying suboptimal regulation trajectories. This considerable minority poses a significant concern because of the established trajectory of phobia onset in middle childhood.

Correlated and Coupled Trajectories of Cancer-Related Worries and Depressive Symptoms among Long-Term Cancer Survivors

The quality of life over time of long-term survivors has become an important part of both cancer and aging research. This paper examines individual differences in trajectories of cancer-related worries and depressive symptoms of 179 participants who completed four waves of annual interviews. Cancer-related worries were significantly associated with both initial level and trajectories of depressive symptoms. In a parallel process growth curve model, the initial level of depressive symptoms was significantly correlated with both the initial level and rate of change in cancer-related worry over time. Our findings indicate that cancer survivors are never completely removed from cancer's threats to quality of life, even as they survive into later life. These findings also suggest that older adults face the dual vulnerability of aging with its growing number of comorbidities and related symptoms along with the vulnerability conferred by cancer-related sequelae and the possibility of recurrence or new cancers.

Early adolescent growth in depression and conduct problem symptoms as predictors of later substance use impairment.

Most studies of adolescent substance use and psychological comorbidity have examined the contributions of conduct problems and depressive symptoms measured only at particular points-in-time. Yet, during adolescence, risk factors such as conduct problems and depression exist within a developmental context, and vary over time. Though internalizing and comorbid pathways to substance use have been theorized (Hussong et al. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 25:390-404, 2011), the degree to which developmental increases in depressive symptoms and conduct problems elevate risk for substance use impairment among adolescents, in either an additive or potentially a synergistic fashion, is unclear. Using a school-based sample of 521 adolescents, we tested additive and synergistic influences of changes in depressive symptoms and conduct problems from 6th to 9th grade using parallel process growth curve modeling with latent interactions in the prediction of late adolescent (12th grade) substance use impairment, while examining gender as a moderator. We found that the interaction between growth in depression and conduct disorder symptoms uniquely predicted later substance use problems, in addition to main effects of each, across boys and girls. Results indicated that adolescents whose parents reported increases in both depression and conduct disorder symptoms from 6th to 9th grade reported the most substance use-related impairment in 12th grade. The current study demonstrates that patterns of depression and conduct problems (e.g., growth vs. decreasing) are likely more important than the static levels at any particular point-in-time in relation to substance use risk.

A parallel process growth model of avoidant personality disorder symptoms and personality traits.

Avoidant personality disorder (AVPD), like other personality disorders, has historically been construed as a highly stable disorder. However, results from a number of longitudinal studies have found that the symptoms of AVPD demonstrate marked change over time. Little is known about which other psychological systems are related to this change. Although cross-sectional research suggests a strong relationship between AVPD and personality traits, no work has examined the relationship of their change trajectories. The current study sought to establish the longitudinal relationship between AVPD and basic personality traits using parallel process growth curve modeling. Parallel process growth curve modeling was applied to the trajectories of AVPD and basic personality traits from the Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders (Lenzenweger, M. F., 2006, The longitudinal study of personality disorders: History, design considerations, and initial findings. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 645-670. doi:10.1521/pedi.2006.20.6.645), a naturalistic, prospective, multiwave, longitudinal study of personality disorder, temperament, and normal personality. The focus of these analyses is on the relationship between the rates of change in both AVPD symptoms and basic personality traits. AVPD symptom trajectories demonstrated significant negative relationships with the trajectories of interpersonal dominance and affiliation, and a significant positive relationship to rates of change in neuroticism. These results provide some of the first compelling evidence that trajectories of change in PD symptoms and personality traits are linked. These results have important implications for the ways in which temporal stability is conceptualized in AVPD specifically, and PD in general.