Parakeet Psittacula Krameri Research Articles

Parrots in the wild in Polish cities.

Amateur breeding of parrots as pets has contributed to many species being found in areas where they never occurred in the wild, particularly in warmer regions, but also in the temperate climates of North America and Europe. Climate change is likely to exacerbate this process. We hypothesised that parrots occurred in the wild in the cities of Poland, especially the rose-ringed parakeet, as there are reports of breeding sites in the literature. Using information on lost, found and sighted parrots posted on social media, we have analysed the extent of parrot emergence in Poland. In a period of less than two years (from October 2018, through 2019 and from June to the end of December 2021), 2,675 parrot specimens of 49 species were found in the wild. The most frequently observed species were cockatiel Nymphicus hollandicus (N = 962), budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus (N = 884) and rose-ringed parakeet Psittacula krameri (N = 182). Parrots were most frequently observed in urban areas, in regions characterized by a higher population size, a higher income and a higher proportion of people with a university degree. Our study shows that the occurrence of parrots, especially rose-ringed parakeets in the wild, needs to be monitored as new breeding sites may appear.

The raptor lockdown menu—Shifts in prey composition suggest urban peregrine diets are linked to human activities

Abstract Raptors can thrive in cities where food supplies are abundant and seasonally stable. The availability of such resources may be linked to spatiotemporally predictable human activities generating reliable food subsidies for both raptors and their prey, capable of sustaining large populations. However, raptors may become affected by shifts in human behaviour. Here, we explore how urban peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus diets respond to changes in human activity levels amidst COVID‐19 pandemic social restrictions. We used online nest cameras to study peregrine diets and reproduction across 31 sites in 27 UK cities over three breeding seasons, including one during lockdown. Prey composition changed significantly between years, and these differences varied by region. During lockdown, London peregrines took a lower proportion of pigeons (−14.5%), offset by a greater proportion of starlings Sturnus vulgaris (+6.9%) and ring‐necked parakeets Psittacula krameri (+3.2%). In other cities, lockdown diets showed no change for pigeons (+0.3%), starlings comprised a lower prey proportion (−4.3%), while non‐dominant corvid prey (+2.3%) and waterbirds (+2%) had greater importance. Racing pigeon prey also decreased during lockdown, significantly outside London. However, breeding parameters (number of eggs, hatchlings, fledglings) were not significantly different, suggesting urban peregrines may not have experienced food shortages amidst restrictions. Thus, our study demonstrates that human activity can influence urban peregrine predation opportunities but is unlikely to be more important than other factors like habitat availability. It also highlights how impacts can vary regionally, which may have been driven by social and geographical differences between the capital and other cities. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Breeding status of invasive Rose-ringed Parakeets Psittacula krameri in Durban, South Africa

The Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri has established feral populations in South African suburban areas. However, the information on the breeding biology of parakeets remains poorly documented in the country. We assessed parakeets’ breeding status and behaviour by locating their roost and breeding sites in Durban, eThekwini Metropole, KwaZulu-Natal province. We also placed artificial nest boxes to determine the occupancy of parakeets or other bird species. We identified 39 parakeet breeding sites with a total of 72 nests. There were no significant differences between the number of active parakeet nests in the first (n = 53 nests) and second breeding seasons (n = 59). Rose-ringed Parakeets used four tree species for nesting, with the white milkwood Sideroxylon inerme used the most (71%). Only East African lowland honey bees Apis mellifera scutellata and Common Mynas Acridotheres tristis used the artificial nest boxes. Parakeet fledgings recorded ranged between one and three per nest, and their numbers differed significantly between seasons. The number of fledglings was not influenced by any of the tree variables measured and distance or location. The distance between the parakeets’ roosting and breeding sites ranged from 1.43 to 5.0 km. Our study provides essential data for an overall management strategy, including eradication programs for this species in South Africa.

Alien parakeets as a potential threat to the common noctule Nyctalus noctula

The ring-necked parakeet Psittacula krameri (Aves: Psittaciformes) is a widely distributed species of Asian and African origin, which occurs with over 40 alien populations in the rest of the world. Most established populations of this species are showing a clear trend of territorial expansion and numerical growth. Recent reviews highlighted that one of the main impacts by alien ring-necked parakeets is the competition with threatened bat species using trunk cavities as roosts. In Italy, the only known reproductive population of Nyctalus bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) occurs in an urban area in the central part of the country, surrounded by increasing and expanding populations of ring-necked parakeets. In this work, we updated the population status of both ring-necked and Alexandrine parakeets and breeding noctule bats in the region. Then, we ran a species distribution model using Maxent software to analyze the environmental suitability of the region for the ring-necked parakeet and a connectivity model using Circuitscape software to predict the possibility of its expansion in the area occupied by breeding noctule bats. We recorded a high number of individual parakeets and breeding colonies, together with a remarkable noctule population decline, from about 400 to about 120 individuals, in the last 20 years, possibly due to urban green management practices. Although some ring-necked parakeets have already been observed in the study area, there is no evidence of reproduction in the surroundings of the noctule colony. However, our model showed a high environmental suitability for the ring-necked parakeet in the area occupied by breeding noctules. As well, the connectivity model showed the potential for a direct flow of individuals from the main urban centers to the area used by noctule bats. The arrival of alien parakeets to the area occupied by the bat breeding colony should be tightly monitored by surveying the suitable areas for this bird, as well as the identified ecological corridors. Early detection of new invasions, together with a sustainable urban green management practice, may prevent the extinction of the southernmost breeding colony of the common noctule.

Citizen science survey of non-native Rose-ringed Parakeets Psittacula krameri in the Durban metropole, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri (Scopoli, 1769) has become invasive in several countries, including South Africa, mainly through the pet trade releases and escapees. We conducted an online questionnaire survey targeting the residents in Durban, eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We aimed to determine the distribution, habitat and diet of the Rose-ringed Parakeet. We also determined if the public perceived parakeets as pests and if control measures were supported. We found that many parakeet sightings were reported in Durban North, primarily in and around shopping centres. Approximately 64.5% of respondents provided feeding stations for parakeets, with most providing seeds and grains. A total of 173 (55.4%) respondents considered parakeets as a pest. Rose-ringed parakeets were reported to chase nine bird species, of which seven were native and two non-natives. Most respondents stated that parakeets should not be controlled. However, most of those who supported their control suggested shooting and destruction of eggs. We concluded that the distribution of parakeets is likely expanding and associated with anthropogenic activities in this urban landscape. However, public perceptions may make invasive Rose-ringed Parakeet management difficult.

Observations on the foraging behavior of Tricoloured Munia Lonchura malacca (Linnaeus, 1766) and its interaction with pearl millet fields in Villupuram District, Tamil Nadu, India

Study of foraging behaviour of Tricoloured Munia Lonchura malacca and its interaction in pearl millet crop fields was conducted in six villages of Tindivanam taluk, Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu from April to June 2020. A total of six flocks containing 1,640 birds of Tricoloured Munia were enumerated. The number of birds per flock varied from 60 to 800. They never split into small flocks and maintained the same flock size throughout the day. Tricoloured Munias used nine plant species for roosting. Twelve quadrats (0.3 ha) each of 5 m x 5 m size were laid in the pearl millet fields covering six villages. A total of 10,295 spikes were counted in these plots, and of these 3,785 spikes (36.7%) were found damaged by foraging munias. The maximum damage of 99.6% was observed in Thenputhur village. Along with Tricoloured Munia, five other granivorous birds, such as Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus, Indian Silverbill Euodice malabarica, Common Babbler Turdoides caudata, Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri, and White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata were also found foraging without any inter-specific competition. Farmers adopted various traditional bird repellent techniques such as beating utensils, throwing pebbles/soil on the crop, placing scarecrows, tying multi-coloured ribbons, and hanging bottles to chase the birds away.

Nesting innovations allow population growth in an invasive population of rose-ringed parakeets.

Certain traits of recipient environments, such as the availability of limiting resources, strongly determine the establishment success and spread of non-native species. These limitations may be overcome through behavioral plasticity, allowing them to exploit alternative resources. Here, we show how a secondary cavity nester bird, the rose-ringed parakeet Psittacula krameri, innovates its nesting behavior as a response to the shortage of tree cavities for nesting in its invasive range in Tenerife (Canary Islands). We observed that some breeding pairs excavated their own nest cavities in palms, thus becoming primary cavity nester, whereas others occupied nests built with wood sticks by another invasive species, the monk parakeet Myiopsitta monachus. The use of these novel nesting strategies increased the number of breeding pairs by up to 52% over 6 years, contributing to a 128.8% increase of the whole population. Innovative nests were located at greater heights above ground and were more aggregated around conspecifics but did not result in greater breeding success than natural cavities. Occupation of monk parakeet colonies by rose-ringed parakeets also benefited the former species through a protective-nesting association against nest predators. Our results show how an invasive species innovate nesting behaviors and increase nest-site availability in the recipient environment, thus facilitating its population growth and invasion process. Potential behavioral innovations in other invasive rose-ringed parakeet populations may be overlooked, and should be considered for effective management plans.

Nesting Characteristics and Breeding Success of Rose-Ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri in Urban and Natural Areas

The present study was conducted to identify the effect of urban and natural areas on nesting and breeding success of Rose-ringed Parakeet. Nests of Rose-ringed Parakeet were monitored using a combination of camera surveillance and direct observations along transect lines. Cavity availability and use was compared between natural and urban areas. A total of 171 cavities were located, of which 106 contained active nests. The number of available cavities and the proportion occupied were both higher in natural areas than in urban areas. A uniform/cosine model estimated that mean nest density was greater (P<0.05) in natural areas (136 nests/km2) than in urban areas (130 nests/km2). The preferred trees used for nesting were Banyan Ficus benghalensis (22.8%) followed by Chinaberry Tree Melia azedarach (20.4%), Paper Mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera (14.6%), Chir Pine Pinus roxburghii (14.6%), Southern Blue Gum Eucalyptus globulus (11%), Mango Mangifera indica (9.3%), and White Mulberry Morus alba (12%). The greatest number (P<0.05) of successful breeding cavities was recorded in the middle of trees (42.5%) at heights of 6.1–9 m (72.6%) above ground. Mean cavity depths were significantly greater (P<0.05) in urban areas (9.95±0.5 cm) than in natural areas (8.71±2.1 cm), while mean entrance diameter was 6.19±1.9 cm in natural areas and 5.65±0.2 cm in urban areas. Clutches of five eggs were the most common. Hatchling and fledgling successes were higher in natural areas than urban areas, with egg survival probability (70.0%) and nestling survival probability (94.0%) higher in natural areas than in urban areas (37% and 60%) respectively. It is concluded that the breeding success of Rose-ringed Parakeet varies between urban and natural areas.

Leaf bathing in ring-necked parakeets Psittacula krameri

Bathing is one of the main actions birds perform as part of their preening. They may bathe in water, snow, dust, and even ants. Leaf bathing, where birds make use of water droplets on leaves to bathe, is less common. Here we describe four observations between 2017 and 2021 of ring-necked parakeets Psittacula krameri bathing on water droplets on leaves during rain.Over the past twenty years we have often seen monk parakeets Myiopsitta monachus bathing in puddles but never on leaves. The monk parakeet often forages on the ground, but ring-necked parakeets are reluctant to do so. We therefore interpret that the leaf bathing we observed in the ring-necked parakeet could be an anti-predatory strategy to avoid going down to the ground.

Nest tree preference shown by Ring-necked Parakeet Psittacula krameri (Scopoli, 1769) in northern districts of Tamil Nadu, India

This paper pertains to the nesting aspects of Psittacula krameri with specific reference to nesting-related habitats, number of individuals encountered, inter-specific interactions, and abnormalities in 71 villages covering seven northern districts of Tamil Nadu. A total of 797 nests (500 active and 297 non-active nests) and 1,119 individuals were enumerated on 284 trees and 13 temples/buildings belonging to eight species, seven genera, and five families. The highest number of nests (320) and birds (469) occurred on Borassus flabellifer L., followed by Cocos nucifera L., Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth., Madhuca longifolia J.F.Gmel., Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb., and Ficus benghalensis L. This species prefers dead trees than living trees for nesting. The study reveals that 63.4% nests (n= 505) and 65.1% birds (n= 729) were found on dead trees of B. flabellifer, C. nucifera, and P. sylvestris. They generally prefer to build nests on trees situated near agricultural lands, followed by those near water bodies, human settlements, and temples/buildings. Pearson’s chi-square test indicates that the birds showed preference towards certain nesting sites/nesting species. Inter-specific interactions occurred between P. krameri and Blue Rock Pigeon, Spotted Owlet, Indian Roller, and Black-rumped Flameback for sharing of cavities/holes for construction of nests. Abnormalities in bird’s beak, cere, colour of feathers, and a suspected psittacine beak &amp; feather disease (PBFD) were observed.

Population counts and potential impact of two successful invaders in a town of Northern Italy: the case of ring-necked parakeet and Alexandrine parakeet in Reggio Emilia

In our paper, we reported the presence of two alien species in the city of Reggio Emilia, the ring-necked parakeet Psittacula krameri and the Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula eupatria. The ring-necked parakeet is widespread throughout Europe with many colonies known also for Italy, whereas the Alexandrine parakeet has been only recorded in the last 10-15 years and, apart from few individuals in Rome, the breeding population in Reggio Emilia is the largest one in Italy. We carried winter counts following standard methods through counts at roosts. About 78-80 ring-necked and at least 16 Alexandrine parakeets were counted, including also some hybrids between the two species, which were morphologically identified by the pale colour of the shoulders. Although no claims of crop damage are yet reported, parakeets of both species may feed on ripe and unripe persimmons in private gardens, reducing the total fruit production by up to 75-80%. Furthermore, four Savi’s pipistrelle Hypsugo savii have been killed by ring-necked parakeets in early spring 2019. Therefore, the current trend of these species in the town could lead to further expansion into suburban farmland areas, increasing potential conflicts with human activities.

Successful hybridization between non‐congeneric parrots in a small introduced population

Introduced organisms have to overcome several obstacles, including the scarcity of conspecific mates, before becoming successfully established. We recorded interspecific mating in non‐native areas (Spain) that involved Orange‐winged Amazons Amazona amazonica with three non‐congeneric parrot species: Scaly‐headed Parrot Pionus maximiliani, Rose‐ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri and Monk Parakeet Myiopsitta monachus. Rather than mating with parakeets, a male Orange‐winged Amazon successfully bred with a female Scaly‐headed Parrot, raising hybrid offspring during five consecutive years and thus increasing the initial population size from five to 12 individuals in 9 years. Non‐congeneric hybridization seems to be extremely rare in wild parrots and, in this case, it may facilitate the successful establishment of a small introduced population in Tenerife, Spain.

Composition and Potential Function of Fecal Bacterial Microbiota from Six Bird Species

Gut microbial communities play a fundamental role in health and disease, but little is known about the gut microbiota of pet bird species. This is important to better understand the impact of microbes on birds’ health but may also be relevant in a context of zoonoses. Total genomic DNA samples from pooled fecal samples from 30 flocks (4–7 pet birds per flock) representing over 150 birds of six different species (two Passeriformes: Northern Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) and Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata), and four Psittaciformes: Lovebird (Agapornis, different species), Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus), Red-rumped Parrot (Psephotus haematonotus), and Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri) were used for 16S rRNA gene analysis. Several taxa were found to be different among the bird species (e.g., lowest median of Lactobacillus: 2.2% in Cockatiels; highest median of Lactobacillus: 79.4% in Lovebirds). Despite marked differences among individual pooled samples, each bird species harbored a unique fecal bacterial composition, based on the analysis of UniFrac distances. A predictive approach of metagenomic function and organism-level microbiome phenotypes revealed several differences among the bird species (e.g., a higher proportion of proteobacteria with the potential to form biofilms in samples from Northern Mockingbirds). The results provide a useful catalog of fecal microbes from pet birds and encourage more research on this unexplored topic.

Effectiveness of reflective ribbons in the management of rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri) in guava (Psidium guajava L.) orchards

Effectiveness of reflective ribbons in the management of rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri) in guava (Psidium guajava L.) orchards

Aspects of the feeding ecology of introduced Rose-ringed Parakeets Psittacula krameri in the urban landscape mosaic of Durban, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

The Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri is one of the world’s commonest invasive bird species and has established in the South African urban landscapes. However, relatively little is known about the feeding biology of parakeets here. We surveyed areas in eThekwini Municipality, Durban, South Africa, to determine their feeding sites and the related land-use types. Patterns of the association were explored using Correspondence Analysis to determine parakeets’ diet across seasons and interaction between different tree species fed on by parakeets and other bird species. Dietary items were determined visually using binoculars. We identified a total of 63 feeding sites with many in the urban built land-use cover type. The parakeets’ diet differed significantly across the seasons with spring accounting for 33% of annual food items. We identified 31 fruiting/flowering tree species fed on by the parakeets, with fleshy fruits and flowers accounting for 58% and 19%, respectively. Native tree species (63%) were mostly relied on when compared with non-native (27%). They also fed on carpenter ants Camponotus cinctellus which contributed 3% of their diet. The forest fever-berry Croton sylvaticus (fleshy fruits) and African star-chestnut Sterculia africana (flowers) were the most preferred tree species in autumn and summer. The observed number of bird species that communally fed with parakeets were significantly different across the sampled seasons. The diets for the Common Myna Acridotheres tristis and the Speckled Mousebird Colius striatus overlapped with parakeets for most tree species. Parakeets were observed actively feeding in the early mornings and late afternoons before roosting. Our study supports that parakeets are generalist-opportunistic feeders. The assessment of Rose-ringed Parakeets feeding ecology may help understand their potential impact on native tree and bird species within an urban landscape.

Population estimates of non-native rose-ringed parakeets Psittacula krameri (Scopoli, 1769) in the Durban Metropole, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

Rose-ringed parakeets Psittacula krameri are one of the most widely distributed urban avian invader species present in ~ 35 countries with population sizes increasing. These parakeets were introduced to South Africa as part of the pet trade, and feral populations have established in several urban areas since and are of concern. We, therefore, conducted monthly surveys between August 2018 – December 2019 in the greater Durban Metropole, KwaZulu-Natal Province, to determine their population size and roosting sites. In addition, we recorded bird species that communally roosted with rose-ringed parakeets, and tree species characteristics that they used for roosting. We identified five main roost site areas with an overall mean (± SD) monthly population size of 1 783.3 ± 505.2 rose-ringed parakeets. There was an increase in rose-ringed parakeet numbers, particularly in August and December after their breeding. Most rose-ringed parakeets were recorded in the north, with fewer in the south of the metropole; and many were located around shopping centres and parks. A total of seven bird species communally shared roost sites with rose-ringed parakeets, with the non-native common myna Acridotheres tristis being the species that frequently shared roosts with parakeets. Three tree species were used as roosts, with the Natal mahogany Trichilia emetica and the giant palm Raphia australis, so being the preferred roost tree species. The results showed variations in the measured tree traits and the number of individual parakeets roosting per tree species. The population size of non-native rose-ringed parakeets showed persistent growth, and it is, therefore, suggested that control measures for this species are introduced before its population expands further.

Loud callings limit human tolerance towards invasive parakeets in urban areas

Biological invasions represent today one of the main cause of the global biodiversity crisis, particularly in urban and suburban areas. Research on this topic have traditionally focused on ecological impacts, with poor regards to the social components. The ring-necked parakeet Psittacula krameri is one of the most successful invaders and it is widely appreciated by the general public, being introduced through the pet trade. In this work we assessed whether long-term introduction, total population size and number of loud flight-calls affected social perception of this species in three populations from Italian cities. We used a visual survey (N = 414 questionnaires), which has been proven to be successful for testing attitudes on ring-necked parakeets. Tolerance towards this invasive species declined sharply with increasing number of loud calls by this species, thus providing support to the hypothesis of involvement of the ring-necked parakeet in noise pollution. Conversely, total population size and years since the first local introduction were not found out to be important variable determining social attitudes. Awareness on invasive species impacts is mostly obtained only when invasive populations are already affecting native biodiversity and human wellness, thus when management becomes challenging. Thus, at early invasion stages, intervention towards invasive species, particularly if charismatic, are often hampered by social public and animal right movements, especially in urban ecosystems. Educational campaigns on ecological and social impact by invasive alien species in urban ecosystems are therefore strongly recommended to implement effective management actions.

'Some like it alien': predation on invasive ring–necked parakeets by the long–eared owl in an urban area

Predation pressure by native species may limit the spread of alien invasive species, thus playing a pivotal role in the impact and implementation of management strategies. The ring–necked parakeet Psittacula krameri is one of the most widespread alien bird species in Europe, with nearly 70 established populations. Predators of this species include diurnal raptors, synanthropic corvids, and rodents. Here we report for the first time that long–eared owls Asio otus might have preyed upon parakeets in their night roosts. Analysis of 167 owl pellets showed that ring–necked parakeets made up over 10 % of the total volume of the diet of these owls in winter (32.93 % of absolute frequency), representing the most important prey species after murid rodents and passerine birds. Further studies are needed to investigate whether parakeet consumption by long–eared owls is only a local occurrence or whether it is widespread in European cities. If so, predation by long–eared owl may eventually lead to a form of parakeet control and may limit the impact of this introduced parakeet on native biodiversity.

‘Some like it alien’: predation on invasive ring–necked parakeets by the long–eared owl in an urban area

Predation pressure by native species may limit the spread of alien invasive species, thus playing a pivotal role in the impact and implementation of management strategies. The ring–necked parakeet Psittacula krameri is one of the most widespread alien bird species in Europe, with nearly 70 established populations. Predators of this species include diurnal raptors, synanthropic corvids, and rodents. Here we report for the first time that long–eared owls Asio otus might have preyed upon parakeets in their night roosts. Analysis of 167 owl pellets showed that ring–necked parakeets made up over 10 % of the total volume of the diet of these owls in winter (32.93 % of absolute frequency), representing the most important prey species after murid rodents and passerine birds. Further studies are needed to investigate whether parakeet consumption by long–eared owls is only a local occurrence or whether it is widespread in European cities. If so, predation by long–eared owl may eventually lead to a form of parakeet control and may limit the impact of this introduced parakeet on native biodiversity.

Introduced population of ring-necked parakeets Psittacula krameri in Madeira Island, Portugal – Call for early action

Introduced population of ring-necked parakeets Psittacula krameri in Madeira Island, Portugal – Call for early action