Acetaminophen Research Articles

Photocatalytic degradation of paracetamol on immobilized TiO2 in a low-tech reactor by solar light for water treatment

Photocatalytic water treatment is an appealing concept to mineralize organic contaminants in contaminated water. In this study, the UV-resistant drug paracetamol (PCT) in aqueous solution is degraded by using a solar irradiated loop-reactor equipped with a TiO2 (P25) photocatalyst. The catalyst powder was dispersed in a geopolymer surface coating applied to aluminum-U-profiles connected by filament-printed polymer elements. Different assays with variations in initial PCT concentration were performed under natural solar radiation to determine the degradation kinetics of the PCT and correlate it to applied solar radiation energy density. Depending on experimental conditions, degradation efficiencies of 37.0–75.1 % were achieved within 3 h. Control samples without catalyst show no degradation. No degradation of the catalyst activity was observed within 42 h of operation time. The study shows the feasibility of this simple and scalable reactor design and coating technology for water purification under off-grid conditions provided sufficient solar radiation is available.

Azadirachta indica leaf extract based green-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles coated on spent tea waste activated carbon for pharmaceuticals and personal care products removal

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are emerging contaminants in aqueous systems, posing threat to both human health and environment. In prior research, predominant focus has been on examining various adsorbents for removing PPCPs from single-pollutant systems. However, no study has delved into simultaneous adsorption of PPCPs multi-pollutant mixture. This study evaluates performance of Azadirachta indica leaf extract-based green-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles coated on spent tea waste activated carbon (ZTAC) for removing sulfadiazine (SZN) and acetaminophen (ACN). Adsorption investigations were conducted in single-component (ACN/SZN) and binary-component (ACN + SZN) systems. The synthesized ZTAC was characterized using SEM, XRD, FTIR, EDX, porosimetry and pHpzc analysis. The study examines impact of time (1–60 min), dose (0.2–4 g/L), pH (2–12) and PPCPs concentration (1–100 mg/L) on ACN and SZN removal. Various kinetic and isotherm models were employed to elucidate mechanisms involved in sorption of PPCPs. Furthermore, synergistic and antagonistic aspects of sorption process in multi-component system were investigated. ZTAC, characterized by its crystalline nature and surface area of 980.85 m2/g, exhibited maximum adsorption capacity of 47.39 mg/g for ACN and 34.01 mg/g for SZN under optimal conditions of 15 min, 3 g/L and pH 7. Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic model best-fitted the experimental data indicating chemisorption mechanism. Removal of ACN and SZN on ZTAC demonstrated synergistic nature, signifying cooperative adsorption. Overall, valorization of ZTAC offers effective and efficient adsorbent for elimination of PPCPs from wastewater.

Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Based on Coffee Husks Embedded on Mesoporous Silica for the Sensing of Acetaminophen

AbstractIn the present work, a green method improved by surface response methodology (SRM) has been used for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) from coffee husks extract, in which Santa Barbara‐15 (SBA‐15) mesoporous silica has been embedded. The composite formed has been drop coated on bare glassy carbon electrode and the resulting sensor (ZnONPs/SBA‐15/GCE) was used for the sensing of acetaminophen (ACT). Reaction factors such as pH, incubation time and precursor concentration were optimized during nanoparticles synthesis using SRM. The synthesized nanoparticles and the composite were characterized by ultraviolet‐visible spectrophotometry (UV‐Vis), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, powder X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X‐ray (EDX/EDX‐mapping) analysis, thermogravimetry analysis/differential thermogravimetry (TGA/DTG), cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), showing the good elaboration of ZnONPs/SBA‐15/GCE. After optimization of parameters susceptible to affect the detection limit of ACT, the calibration curve was plotted from 4 μM to 32 μM, showing good linear response with a detection limit of 0.11 μM. The developed sensor shows good sensitivity, reproducibility, repeatability and storage stability at room temperature and was successfully applied for the determination of ACT in pharmaceutical sample.

Role of electron transfer between bare electrode and benzoguanamine to fabricate an electrochemical sensor for drugs: Theoretical and electrochemical approach

Herein, a poly(benzoguanamine) (BNZ) modified carbon paste electrode (CPE) was applied for the electroanalysis of paracetamol (PA) in PA tablet and human urine. Theoretical evaluation of the quantum chemical parameters of benzoguanamine (BZ) via density functional theory (DFT) calculations show that it is a reactive monomer with a tendency for back bond formation with the bare carbon paste electrode (BCPE). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of BCPE and BNZ modified CPE (BNZ/CPE) show that the BNZ films were deposited on the bare electrode in layers. Results of the electrochemical characterization of these electrodes in 1 mM K4[Fe(CN)6] revealed that the BNZ/CPE has a higher electrocatalytic activity towards K4[Fe(CN)6] oxidation than BCPE. The limit of detection (LOD) of PA at the BNZ/CPE was estimated as 13.2 nM over a linear dynamic range (LDR) of 0.05–0.45 μM. Also, the proposed sensor offered PA recoveries of 99.2–100.4 % and 98.4–100.8 % in PA tablet solution and human urine sample, respectively. The BNZ/CPE showed remarkable shelf-life by retaining 97.4 % of its initial current response after 21 days of application for PA electroanalysis at 7 days interval. Notably, this study is the first attempt at the application of the BNZ/CPE for PA electroanalysis.

Photocatalytic activation of sodium percarbonate by C3N5/C2N3 homojunction for rapid water purification: Efficient electron transfer of built-in electric field

The sodium percarbonate (SPC) activation by photogenerated electron from metal-free semiconductors is a potential advanced oxidation process in water treatment. C2N3, a novel CxNy material, was used to construct a nonmetallic homojunction catalyst via loading C3N5. The C3N5/C2N3 homojunction catalyst was used to photocatalytic activate SPC to degrade acetaminophen (AP), sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, oxytetracycline and acyclovir. The CN-2/SPC/Vis system can completely remove AP within 20 min at 15 °C, and achieve excellent removal rate in a wide pH range. Its reaction rate constant was 24 times higher than that of C3N5/C3N4/SPC/Vis system. The CN-2/SPC/Vis system showed outstanding removal efficiency in tap and lake water. Notably, CN-2 was prepared as a photocatalytic suspension sponge and exhibited superior practicability in secondary effluent simulation experiment. CN-2 sponge can completely degrade AP within 50 min. The dominant active species for AP removal were h+, •O2− and 1O2. DFT calculations and electrochemical experiments demonstrated that the built-in electric field of nonmetallic homojunction accelerated the carrier separation, and more photogenerated electrons activated SPC to generate ROS. This work provides new insights into the construction of heterojunction in photocatalytic system and reveals the application potential of homojunction in wastewater purification.

Occurrence of pharmaceutically active compounds in groundwater and their effects to the human health.

Groundwater contamination by pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) has been considered a public health concern worldwide. Alongside the potential toxicological risk of these organic substances, many countries still rely on groundwater for drinking water supply. Thus, this study identified a priority list of seven licit PhACs, comprising acetaminophen (ACT), tramadol (TRA), carbamazepine (CBZ), erythromycin (ERY), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), metformin (MET), and oxazepam (OXZ). Consumption, concentration, and human toxicity in silico results were collected from open access databases. These three indicators were analyzed separately and grouped through a general risk index. The consumption index (data from the USA and Brazil) indicated that ACT, TRA, and MET are the most consumed. Monitoring samples from the USA and Europe (n = 816) indicated that OXZ and ERY stand out as the higher occurrence index considering both regions, but the ranking for each region showed considerable differences. When assessing toxicological risk, an index ≥ 0.5 was attributed to CBZ, MET, OXZ, SMX, and TRA. The general risk indicated the need to be attentive to MET, OXZ, and TRA as they presented ≥ 0.5 index values for at least two indicators.

Effect of novel surfactant protic ethanolamine based ionic liquids on the aqueous solubility and thermodynamic properties of acetaminophen

The solubility of low soluble drugs in aqueous media remains an obstacle in the pharmaceutical development process. Ionic liquids (ILs), with their remarkable solvent properties, have gained considerable attention as potential solubility enhancers for such drugs. In this context, surfactant protic ethanolamine-based ILs have emerged as a particularly promising class of compounds due to their unique dual functionality. This study explores the significant role of these novel solvents in improving drug solubility, focusing on their potential applications in pharmaceutical formulations. Acetaminophen (ACP), a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug, often encounters solubility limitations that hinder its effective pharmaceutical applications. In the past few years, there has been a growing recognition of the potential of ILs (ionic liquids) as effective solvents. They offer promising prospects for enhancing the solubility of pharmaceutical substances in water-based solutions. This study investigates the enhancement of ACP solubility through the utilization of ILs. The solubilization behavior of ACP in the attendance of mono, bis and tris-(2-hydroxyethylammonium) octanoate systems is explored, highlighting the significant impact of different number of hydroxyethyl groups combinations on its solubility profile. Experimental results reveal that these ILs exhibit a remarkable ability to improve the solubility of ACP, making them attractive candidates for pharmaceutical formulations. The mechanisms underlying this enhancement are discussed, encompassing factors such as the ion-specific interactions, polarity, and hydrogen bonding capabilities of ionic liquids. Furthermore, the potential implications of utilizing ILs for enhancing the bioavailability and formulation versatility of ACP are considered. To accurately correlate the solubility data, various thermodynamic models were employed. Furthermore, to examine the observable thermodynamic characteristics of dissolution in the studied systems Van't Hoff and Gibbs equations were used. The findings indicated that the dissolution process in all co-solvents used was characterized by an endothermic nature and driven by enthalpy.

Single and binary adsorption of paracetamol and diclofenac onto biochar produced from pepper stem: Which adsorption properties change in the binary system?

The importance of combating the contamination of water resources with emerging pollutants must be kept all the more in view by scientists, since such pollutants are harmful and pose challenges for traditional water treatment methods. The current study was designed to scrutinize the adsorption properties of a low-cost biochar for two pharmaceuticals in both single and binary systems. The work was focused on understanding how paracetamol (PARA) and diclofenac (DIC) co-adsorb, and it can serve as a beacon for similar studies, especially in modeling the adsorption processes of such systems. Using a low-cost biochar from pepper stem (PS) with a high surface area = 727.5 m2/g as adsorbent, experiments were carried out in both the single and binary systems to investigate the adsorption behavior of the mentioned pharmaceuticals. Results showed that, in the single system, the PS biochar demonstrates a slightly greater adsorption capability for both PARA and DIC, with a capacity of 354.66 and 256.10 mg/g, respectively, compared to its capacity for each pharmaceutical in the presence of the other in the solution. Interestingly, the effect of the presence of one of the pharmaceuticals on the thermodynamic parameters (ΔGº, ΔSº, and ΔHº) of the other was ignorable, and interactions such as hydrogen bonding, π-π, n-π, and anion-π interactions were at work for the adsorption processes, with different extends in each pharmaceutical-biochar case. On the other hand, the presence of one of the pharmaceuticals was effective on the kinetics of the adsorption process of the other and caused a decrease in its adsorption rate, especially in the initial stage of the process. Overall, in addition to the suitability of pepper stem biochar for PARA and DIC, results showed that the presence of one pharmaceutical is not influential on all the adsorption properties of the other, and the results can be exploited for studding similar systems.

A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies

Abstract The main objective of this article was to develop method and validate quaternary estimation of caffeine (CFE), paracetamol (PCM), levocetirizine (LEV), and phenylephrine (PHE) and to conduct degradation experiments using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). This was the first innovative approach to this drug combination, combining analytical quality by design with green analytical chemistry. This method was developed using HPLC Agilent 1220 Infinity II, a binary solvent delivery pump, an automatic sampling device injector, and a photodiode array detector. Agilent Inertsil ODS 3 (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) was used for separation. The mobile phase is composed of ethanol and 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH 3). To adjust the pH, 1% of orthophosphoric acid was used. The flow rate was set to 0.8 ml·min−1, the injection volume was 10 μl, and the detecting wavelength was 220 nm. The analytes were eluted via gradient elution. The retention time for PCM was 3.5 min, CFE was 8.1 min, PHE was 15.9 min, and LEV was 20.5 min. Green evaluation tools used in this research include Green Analytical Procedure Index, analytical eco-scale, analytical greenness, analytical method greenness score, and carbon footprint analysis. The developed method was greener than the previously reported method, as per the results of the greenness evaluation tools.

Bimetallic Fe/Co nanoalloy embedded in porous carbon as electrochemical sensor for acetaminophen detection

Ferro-alloys have been extensively studied in the field of electrochemical sensing due to their abundant earth reserves and excellent performances. In this work, serials of bimetallic Fe/Co nanoalloy@carbon composites (Fe/Co@C) were successfully prepared using Co-doped MIL-101(Fe) as templates and developed as excellent electrochemical sensors for acetaminophen (AP) detection. It was found that the atomic ratio of Fe/Co in the templates can significantly affect the electrochemical activity of the product. Among the prepared composites, Fe/Co@C-G2 (Fe/Co = 2:1) with high conductivity and large specific surface area presents the best electrochemical sensing performance. Under the optimal conditions, Fe/Co@C-G2 has a high sensitivity of 55.2 [Formula: see text]A [Formula: see text]M[Formula: see text] cm[Formula: see text], a wide linear range of 0.29-407.15 [Formula: see text]M, a low LOD of 0.09 [Formula: see text]M, good selectivity, excellent stability, and good repeatability. In addition, Fe/Co@C-G2 can also be used for real sample testing. This work expands the application of Fe/Co@C-based composites in electrochemical sensing.

Validation of HPLC-DAD method for analysis of paracetamol and potassium sorbate in liquid oral formulations and its application to forced degradation study

AbstractDue to the frequent use of paracetamol formulations, it is useful to develop an analytical technique for the determination of intact paracetamol in presence of other drugs and excipients or the degradation products. In this study, a simple, isocratic, fast, specific, accurate and precise stability-indicating high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method has been developed and validated for simultaneous quantitative determination of paracetamol (PCM) and potassium sorbate (PS) in oral liquid formulations. The chromatographic separation was achieved on Zorbax SB C18 column (150 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) with Zorbax SB C18 precolumn (12.5 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) using distilled water pH 2 with ortho-phosphoric acid and acetonitrile (70:30, v/v) as a mobile phase, and UV detection at 235 nm. The temperature of the column was kept constant at 25 °C. The method was validated according to International Conference on harmonization (ICH) guidelines. The method demonstrated excellent linearity, with a correlation coefficient of 0.9996 and 0.9998 for PCM and PS, respectively, over the concentration ranges of 10–600 μg mL−1 (PCM) and 6–500 μg mL−1 (PS). The retention time was found to be 1.98 and 4.86 min for PCM and PS, respectively. Oral liquid formulation samples were subjected to various stress conditions (acidic and alkaline hydrolysis, as well as oxidative, heat and photolytic degradation) for the purpose of forced degradation study. The major degradation of paracetamol was achieved in acidic and basic stress conditions, while thermal and photolytic degradation generally had the least influence. On the other hand, potassium sorbate was highly susceptible to photolytic degradation. It was also shown that the formulation has strong influence on stability of tested compounds. Forced degradation studies demonstrated the stability-indicating power of the method and can be used to assess the stability of paracetamol and potassium sorbate in oral liquid formulations.

Spectroscopic In-Vitro Drug-Drug Interaction Studies of Amoxicillin and Paracetamol Solid Dosage Forms

Potential drug-drug interactions (DDIs) are a public health concern in clinical therapy and drug development because of their contribution to actual adverse drug reactions (ADRs) or events. The study aimed to quantify the in-vitro drug-drug interaction of amoxicillin (AMX) and paracetamol (PCM) formulations which are commonly co-administered. Determinations were carried out by spectroscopic methods – zero-order and derivative spectroscopy. The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, 2016. The UV-Spectra of AMX and PCM showed two distinctive peaks at 240 nm and 260 nm were observed for AMX, while for PCM at 290nm and 340 nm, with maxima at 240 nm and 340 nm for AMX and PCM respectively. Absorption measurements were taken at the maximum wavelength of 290 nm and 240 nm for PCM and AMX respectively. The content of both drugs and potential DDIs of AMX and PCM were assayed by zero- and 3rd-derivative spectroscopy. The calibration curves for AMX and PCM standards showed good linearity at concentrations, with corresponding correlation coefficients (R) being 0.999 and 0.998. The intercept and slope for AMX were -0.0148 and 0.0732 respectively, while for PCM values were 0.0071 and 0.148. The content of PCM and AMX in the formulations was 98.40 ± 0.44% and 96.04 ± 0.29% respectively. The joint-drug-dissolution studies for AMX and PCM interaction (DDI) were obtained with the 3rd-order derivative spectroscopy at 210 nm (zero-crossing for PCM) and 290 nm (zero-line crossing for AMX) respectively - which showed overlapping spectra for their zero-order derivative spectra. No significant difference was observed in the in-vitro drug release profiles for AMX and PCM, while comparative profiles were observed to have a very strong correlation between individual-release and joint-release profiles.

Highly stable WO3-Ag-AgCl films for continuous water treatment synthesized using a new low-cost ultrasonic spray-pyrolysis/photoreduction approach

This study reports the successful synthesis of WO3-Ag-AgCl films on glass substrates using a simple and cost-effective ultrasonic spray-pyrolysis/photoreduction method, intended for use in continuous flat plate photochemical reactors. A central composite design was used to optimize the amounts of WO3 and AgCl deposited on the substrate. The films synthesized under varying conditions exhibited heterojunctions of WO3 and AgCl, whose photocatalytic efficiency, assessed by the removal of the model contaminant acetaminophen (ACT) under continuous flow, was greatly influenced by the amount of AgCl deposited on the substrate, while that of WO3 had a minimal impact on ACT removal. The film with WO3:AgCl molar ratio of 1.84 showed exceptional stability over 20 h of continuous operation, with only a 4 % reduction in contaminant removal. Additional tests using a real pharmaceutical effluent spiked with ACT confirmed the high (>92 %) ACT removal of this film formulation and its stability; further tests indicated •OH and O2•− as the primary reactive species involved in the photodegradation reaction. Overall, these findings offer promising and cost-effective alternatives for synthesizing highly stable WO3-Ag-AgCl films that are efficient in treating real pharmaceutical effluents containing emerging contaminants using sunlight.

A Chemometric–Assisted Voltammetric Method for Simultaneous Determination of Acetaminophen and Diclofenac

AbstractDiclofenac (DCF) and Acetaminophen (ACT) are among the most important nonsteroidal anti–inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that sought after for their antipyretic, analgesic, and anti‐inflammatory properties. In addition, ACT and DCF show synergistic activity toward pain relief. Therefore, appropriate analytical strategies are required for the simultaneous quantification of these NSAIDs in prescription drugs. This study introduces a method for the direct and simultaneous determination of ACT and DCF using the voltammetric approach in conjunction with chemometric tools such as partial least squares (PLS) and genetic algorithm–multiple linear regressions (GA−MLR). The calibration set was established using differential pulse voltammetry for 25 distinct mixtures of ACT and DCF. The calibration curve exhibited linearity within the concentration ranges of 0.1–1000 μM for ACT and 0.1–100 and 100–1000 for DCF. The effectiveness of chemometric methods was evaluated by analyzing synthetic mixtures of ACT and DCF and applying these methods to real samples containing a commercial pharmaceutical preparation of the specified drugs. Both methods yielded favorable results.

Efficient Screening of Pharmaceutical Cocrystals by Microspacing In-Air Sublimation.

Cocrystal screening and single-crystal growth remain the primary obstacles in the development of pharmaceutical cocrystals. Here, we present a new approach for cocrystal screening, microspacing in-air sublimation (MAS), to obtain new cocrystals and grow high-quality single crystals of cocrystals within tens of minutes. The method possesses the advantages of strong designable ability of devices, user-friendly control, and compatibility with materials, especially for the thermolabile molecules. A novel drug-drug cocrystal of favipiravir (FPV) with salicylamide (SAA) was first discovered by this method, which shows improved physiochemical properties. Furthermore, this method proved effective in cultivating single crystals of FPV-isonicotinamide (FPV-INIA), FPV-urea, FPV-nicotinamide (FPV-NIA), and FPV-tromethamine (FPV-Tro) cocrystals, and the structures of these cocrystals were determined for the first time. By adjusting the growth temperature and growth distance precisely, we also achieved single crystals of 10 different paracetamol (PCA) cocrystals and piracetam (PIR) cocrystals, which underscores the versatility and efficiency of this method in pharmaceutical cocrystal screening.

Cu/N co-doped biochar activating PMS for selective degrading paracetamol via a non-radical pathway dominated by singlet oxygen and electron transfer

The non-free radical oxidation pathway (PMS-NOPs) of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) holds significant promise for practical wastewater treatment applications, owing to its low oxidation potential, high PMS utilization rate, and robust anti-interference capability in the degradation of pollutants. A novel activator copper nitrogen co-doped porous biochar (Cu-N-BC) with rich defect edges and functional groups was obtained by adding Cu and N to the biochar matrix generated by sodium alginate through pyrolysis in this study. Under the condition of 1 mM PMS, 30 mg/L activator was used to activate PMS and achieve efficient degradation of 10 mg/L paracetamol (PCT) within 15 min, with a high reaction rate constants (kobs) of 0.391 min−1. The activation mechanism of the Cu-N-BC/PMS/PCT system was a non-radical activation pathway with the dominance of singlet oxygen (1O2) and the presence of catalyst-mediated electron transfer. The graphite nitrogen, pyridine nitrogen, and Cu–N coordination introduced by Cu/N co-doping, as well as the carbon skeleton and CO functional group of biochar, were considered active sites that promote the 1O2 generation. The Cu-N-BC/PMS system exhibits strong stability, eco-friendliness, effective mineralization, and interference resistance across diverse pH levels (3–11) and interfering ions, including Cl−, H2PO4−, NO3−, SO42−, and humic acid. Remarkably, it efficiently degrades PCT in tap and lake water, achieving a notable 63.73% TOC mineralization rate, with leached copper ions below 0.02 mg/L. This research introduces a novel method for obtaining metal nitrogen carbon activators and enhances understanding of PMS non-radical activation pathways and active sites.

Nanoarchitectonics of lignin-sepiolite bionanocomposite foams for application in environmental remediation

Innovative bionanocomposite foams based on precipitated Kraft lignin (Lig) and Kraft black liquor (BL) loaded with sepiolite (Sep) were prepared. BL/Sep bionanocomposites were synthesized by emulsion templating and Lig/Sep bionanocomposites were prepared by freeze-drying, resulting in stable and rigid foams. BL/Sep bionanocomposites displayed a closed cell structure, a specific area between 19 and 35 m2/g and macropores of varying sizes. The porosity in this technique is achieved by the mechanical agitation of the emulsion. On the other hand, freeze-dried Lig/Sep bionanocomposites showed open cell morphology with surface areas ranging from 1 to 4 m2/g and uniform macropores due to the ice-templating process. The presence of sepiolite in both types of bionanocomposite foams improved their stiffness, with Young's moduli ranging from 0.21 to 9.6 MPa. The capacity of the foams to adsorb metals, drugs and dyes was evaluated and it was found that the synthesized bionanocomposite foams exhibiting similar adsorption capacities as that reported for lignin. Sepiolite significantly improved the adsorption of Cu(II), Cd(II), acetaminophen (ACT), and methylene blue (MB) in BL/Sep bionanocomposites. Meanwhile, the Lig/Sep bionanocomposites demonstrated superior adsorption capacities for the Cr(VI) anion and aromatic ring compounds, including ACT and MB. In this respect, these lignin-sepiolite foams can be considered as promising materials for the removal of pollutants in aqueous solution.

Two green UV-spectrophotometric techniques applying successive and progressive resolution with new concepts for simultaneous determination of completely overlapping ternary mixture

A spectrophotometric platform based on two smart techniques namely Double Divisor ratio difference spectra spectrophotometry (DDRD) and Derivative ratio amplitude difference method (DR-AD) was applied and validated. These techniques were used for determining and resolving the overlapped spectra of the 3 drugs paracetamol (PAR), pseudoephedrine (PSE) and pholcodine (PHO) in their ternary mixture. DDRD is a successive technique while DR-AD is a progressive one. In DDRD, the mixtures’ spectrum underwent division by a double divisor, and then the ratio difference method was applied. For DR-AD, consequent steps were performed to resolve each drug stepwise. DR-AD technique included division using a single divisor. The linearity ranges encompassed 5-25, 100-800 and 5-50 µg/mL for PAR, PSE and PHO, respectively. These methods were conducted according to ICH guidelines to ascertain accuracy, precision, and specificity. The analysis involved varied concentrations of drug mixtures and a pharmaceutical product. Statistical evaluation revealed no notable distinction between the suggested methodologies and those previously documented. Additionally, adherence to green analytical chemistry principles was demonstrated, establishing them as environmentally friendly analytical approaches.

Environmental risk assessment of selected pharmaceuticals in hospital wastewater in nothern Vietnam

Pharmaceuticals are progressively employed in both human and veterinary medicine and increasingly recognized as environmental contaminants. This study investigated the occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals in influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plants of 12 hospitals in Hanoi and 3 northern cities of Vietnam during dry and rainy seasons. In addition, environmental risk of pharmaceuticals in both hospital influents and effluents were evaluated based on risk quotients (RQs). Nine selected pharmaceutical compounds including sulfamethoxazole (SMX), naproxen (NPX), diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBU), acetaminophen (ACT), carbamazepine (CBM), iopromide (IOP), atenolol (ATN), and caffeine (CAF) were frequently detected in most influent and effluent wastewaters of 12 investigated hospitals. Detected compound levels exhibited a wide range, from as low as 1 ng/L for DCF to as high as 61,772 ng/L for ACT. Among these compounds, ACT, CAF, SMX, and IOP were consistently detected at substantial concentrations in both influents and effluents. This investigation also highlighted potential risks posed by SMX, ACT, and CAF residues present in influents and effluents of hospital wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to aquatic ecosystem. These finding are expected to provide scientific-based evidence for the development of hospital waste management and environmental management programs in Vietnam.

Electrochemical sensing of acetaminophen in biofluids, pharmaceutical and environmental samples using cobalt hexacyanoferrate decorated iron terephthalate metal organic framework

Herein, a highly sensitive, cost-effective, and sustainable electrochemical sensor was developed for the selective sensing of acetaminophen (ACP) in actual samples using cobalt hexacyanoferrate (CHCF) incorporated iron terephthalate metal organic framework (FMF). The CHCF-FMF was sustainably synthesized and characterized using FTIR, XRD and SEM with EDX analysis. Using CHCF-FMF, a modified electrode was fabricated by drop-casting it over a glassy carbon, which on voltammetric investigations, revealed the presence of Co2+/3+ redox couple with a formal potential of 0.51 V. Further, the designed sensor was employed for the electrocatalytic oxidation of ACP, which showed a linear detection range from 0.05 to 7.37 mM with a sensitivity and detection limit of 100.64 µA/mM/cm2 and 13 µM, respectively. Furthermore, the developed CHCF-FMF/GCE sensing system is highly facile and robust, and it has demonstrated excellent stability, selectivity, repeatability, and good reproducibility. The superior performance was attributed to the in-situ formation of CHCF over FMF, which efficiently arranged them to augment the electrochemical and electrocatalytic properties. Besides, the sensor was employed to determine ACP in blood serum, commercial tablets, and environmental samples, which showed recovery ranges of 96.2% – 106.2%. This work provides a novel strategy for designing catalytically active sites at the molecular level, which opens a new avenue in fine-tuning MOFs for their applicability in medical diagnostics, point-of-care, industrial and environmental monitoring devices.