Paratransit Modes Research Articles

Statistical modelling of travel mode choice of public university students in Freetown, Sierra Leone: the case of three campuses

ABSTRACT Though much research has been conducted on students’ travel behavior around the world, not much is known about university students in Sierra Leone. This study investigates the most common transport modes amongst public university students, the factors influencing their preference, and the impact of their choice on the environment. Through a Revealed Preference survey, using the traditional paper-and-pencil method combined with a smartphone-assisted interviewing technique, 632 students were sampled. Discrete travel choice models were developed and estimated, and the methodology was demonstrated for the three campuses under the University of Sierra Leone. The study found that more than one-third of students preferred the paratransit mode, ‘podapoda’, followed by taxi, two and three-wheelers. According to the mode choice model results and exploratory analysis, sociodemographics, travel time, cost, and trip distance are the main factors considered by students’ for selecting a transport mode. Students varied widely in their assessment of how their mode choice affects the environment. These findings highlight the need for a sustainable transport system for university trips. Acquiring appropriate transport modes, promoting active travel, and developing student residences with shorter commutes will ensure long-term land management. This will promote the sociocultural, economic, educational, and ecological aspects of campus growth.

Modeling commuters’ preference towards sharing paratransit services

The transportation sector in India faces significant issues, such as congestion and air pollution, and is in dire need of sustainable strategies. Sharing vehicles is one of the popular sustainable strategies. Sharing auto-rickshaws, a paratransit mode, currently informally operating with a significant mode share, offers an opportunity to tackle sustainability issues. There are several challenges to integrating and promoting auto-rickshaw system as shared transportation using a formal structure of policies. The primary reason is a dearth of studies on sharing auto-rickshaws, leading to policymakers lacking knowledge and focus. The present study contributes to the literature to divert focus on sharing auto-rickshaws in India, considering Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) as a study area. This study attempts to assess and model the intentions of users and non-users toward auto-rickshaw sharing using stated preference (SP) choice experiments and estimate Willingness-to-Pay (WTP) considering multiple socio-economic heterogeneities. Results highlight that the most critical attributes are travel time reliability and access time among different groups. Importance of having real-time information on trips among females and sharing auto-rickshaw users is high. The study provides a transparent direction toward ensuring efficient and integrated policymaking and guidelines for promoting auto-rickshaw sharing in urban areas of the Indian subcontinent with limited resources.

Eliciting mobility preferences of Indians for E-rickshaws: Evidence from Gurugram

The Government of India has approved e-rickshaws in 2015 to make paratransit services more environmentally friendly. This approval has resulted in a substantial influx of e-rickshaws across India, but little is known about the demand side of e-rickshaws. By collecting stated preferences and revealed travel patterns of 800 respondents from the city of Gurugram, we quantify the individuals’ willingness to shift to e-rickshaws from their current travel mode and their willingness to pay to use e-rickshaws for their first-mile travel. Our results indicate that e-rickshaws are perceived as a cheaper travel mode, perhaps the predominant factor driving the shift of a large demand to e-rickshaws. Moreover, e-rickshaws are likely to take away market share from other paratransit modes and walking instead of personalized travel modes. Thus, the net congestion and emission impact of e-rickshaws need to be evaluated in deciding the number of e-rickshaws allowed to operate in a city.

Post COVID-19 Access-Egress Attributes for Urban Metro Transit Users in Delhi

Abstract The BLUE line of Delhi Metro (DM) has been examined to identify the post COVID-19 access–egress attributes of users. An on-board survey of metro commuters is conducted in February and March 2021. The respondents reported six different modes for access and egress trips to nearest metro stations with 38.7% and 43% users opting for walking for access-egress trip respectively. The E-rickshaw is observed to be most preferred para-transit mode whereas private vehicle has small mode share for access-egress trip. It is revealed that 46.5% of respondents are captive riders whereas 51% owns at least one motorized private vehicle. The average access and egress distance covered by walking is (0.81+ 0.32/0.35) Km respectively. The average access and egress trip time by walking is (11.19+3.73) and (11.07+4.45) minutes respectively. The average access and egress trip time by E-rickshaw is (13.21+4.09) and (12.56+2.95) minutes respectively. The access and egress trip time by motorized modes are in the range of (12.36-14.39) and (10.41-13.56) minutes respectively. The average main haul distance across all access-egress modes is observed to be (19.69+11.19) Km. To understand the factors influencing the access–egress mode choice multinomial logistic (MNL) regression models are proposed. The access-egress time and distance are observed to be significant factors in access-egress mode choice. Less parking facility offered by DM is significant factor in access mode choice. Occasional commuters are only significant factor in context with frequency of travelling in DM.

Transport accessibility and affordability as the determinant of non-motorized commuting in rural India

Active modes of travel are effective transportation means for accessibility to opportunity in the less-developed regions. There has been less focus on rural commuting in context to developing nations where there is existing ‘accessibility poverty’ in the regions. Earlier studies focused on India's megaregions as a case study region, but factors like vehicle ownership and ease of travel from home to transport modes and/or transport infrastructures were overlooked. The present study assesses the other side of the Indian regional physiognomies, which is predominantly rural and primarily the source of the labor force and marginal workers for all other regions of India. The present study poses the question, ‘What kind of modal accessibility and transport-related affordability influences the various ranges of commuting distances in the rural settings?’ specifically in the Indian rural context and the non-motorized milieu. Multivariate regression analysis is used to investigate the determinant of the share of commuting on foot and by bicycle as a mode of travel as a dependent variable. The key outcomes from the research are: (i) Bicycle ownership by the household appears as the primary determinant for opting ‘on foot’ or by bicycle mode of travel to work. (ii) Despite the proximity to public transport and paratransit modes, commuters optioned for bicycles. (iii) The presence of a high share of disadvantaged groups in the district leads to ‘on foot’ even for long walking distances. (iv) Transport-related variables as the determinant are critical for short-distance commute, while socio-economic variables are crucial for long-distance commuting.

Joint analysis of mode and travel-based multitasking choices in Mumbai, India

Utilising data collected from the city of Mumbai, India, this study aims to understand the effects of common unobserved variables associated with the joint choices of mode and travel-based multitasking. Random components representing common unobserved variables, simultaneously influencing both mode and travel-based multitasking choices, were introduced in the utility formulations of the joint discrete choice model. In addition, the relative magnitudes of the influence of these common unobserved variables on the total variance of utility differences were calculated. The results showed that common unobserved variables that influence both the paratransit mode choice and information and communication technologies (ICT)-based multitasking choice explained 11.04% of the variance in the utility of choosing the paratransit mode, relative to private vehicles. Meanwhile, the random component common to the bus mode choice and ICT-based multitasking choice explained 12.04% of the variance in the utility of choosing a bus relative to a private vehicle, while the random component common to train choice and non-ICT-based multitasking choice explained 9.88% of the variance in the utility of choosing a train relative to a private vehicle. The contributions of the unobserved variables were compared with the contributions of the observed household, individual, travel, and ICT-related variables. Finally, the study concludes with a discussion of the policy implications of the findings, limitations of the work, and directions for future research.

Correlating The Mac Address with The Passenger: Wi-Fi Scanner Survey on Paratransit Mode

Correlating The Mac Address with The Passenger: Wi-Fi Scanner Survey on Paratransit Mode

Exploring paratransit service quality based on low-income women's perception: A case study in Dhaka city by structural equation model (SEM)

In developing countries paratransit plays a vital role as a public transport mode since mass transit system is inadequate. This research investigates low-income working womens satisfaction level on various service features of paratransit modes based on their experience. Structural Equation Model (SEM) was employed to capture low-income working women's perceptions of paratransit service quality (SQ) in Dhaka city, Bangladesh. Achieving the study objective, a questionnaire survey was conducted on existing paratransit routes from Kamrangichor and Jhauchor slum areas where no bus service is available. Total 410 regular paratransit users who usually use this mode getting to and from workplace participated in the survey during July 2018. To evaluate the paratransit SQ the passengers were asked to rate their perception about 22 service attributes on a likert scale of five points. A series of SEMs were developed to explore the relationship of service features for the overall paratransit SQ. Among the five models the best one is selected by different goodness-of-fit values (CFI = 0.82, TLI = 0.79, RMSEA = 0.12, SRMR = 0.059, AIC = 18,666.94). Model 5 is the best structure developed with four latent variables: ‘Service feature’, ‘System performance’, ‘Safety and security’ and ‘Reliability’ This research explores that ‘Security of goods’, ‘Security of passengers’, ‘Movement flexibility in any road’, ‘Travel expenditure compared to other transport’, and ‘Quality of driver’ are 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th most significant variables that impact on the SQ positively, which represents the real scenario. The outcomes of this research might assist operators and policymakers in formulating policies to enhance urban paratransit SQ.

Application of Multi-Criteria Decision analysis including sustainable indicators for prioritization of public transport system.

Paratransit modes dominate the public transportation industry in the majority of developing countries, especially those in Sub-Saharan Africa. The number of these modes has increased rapidly over the years. Authorities have not yet been able to provide a better alternative for passengers, whose demand is ever-growing. In this research, the main modes of public transport in a Sub-Saharan African city, Kampala, have been studied. Here we used multi-criteria decision-making methods to find out which among the four major public transport modes in Kampala, Uganda, are best from a transportation operator's perspective. The evaluation of alternatives was conducted using Analytic Network Process (ANP) and Elimination Et Choice Translating Reality (ELECTRE III) methods. Both the ANP and the ELECTRE III analysis results demonstrate that alternative "Coaster" is the most appropriate alternative from a public transport operator's point of view. A sensitivity analysis consisting of four different scenarios was considered in the changing of weighting percentages (for benefit, cost, and risk clusters) in the ANP and the ELECTRE III analyses, to show the robustness of the ranking results. According to the sensitivity analysis results, there was no change in the final ranking. The findings of this paper are crucial to policymakers within the transportation sectors of developing countries. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2022;18:25-38. © 2021 SETAC.

Tourists’ preference on the combination of travel modes under Mobility-as-a-Service environment

This study explores a tourists’ preference for tour mode bundle, defined as a set of preferable travel modes for multiple trips in a tour, under Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS). In the context of tourism, MaaS could improve transportation sustainability by providing integrated information about sustainable transportation modes. To develop a systematic understanding of tourists’ preference for tour mode bundle, we design a tour-based stated preference (SP) choice experiment based on bundle configuration of travel modes in MaaS including a shared van as a paratransit mode in combination with the existing bus and taxi services. A web-based SP survey is conducted for 331 individuals who visited Jeju Island in Korea. Two mixed logit models are estimated to reveal differences between the trip- and tour-based mode choice situations. The estimation results reveal that the trip sequence significantly influences the preference for travel mode in a tour mode bundle, which has significant cross effects with individual and travel context attributes. A shared van is the most preferred in both a trip and a tour. Persistence to using the same mode and synergy of using different modes are captured through significant cross effects of sequence-specific travel modes in a tour mode bundle. Based on these findings that can only be identified through tour-based choice situations, MaaS can be more effectively designed in tourism.

Effect of Demographic Characteristics on the choice of Paratransit Modes

The absence of public transportation has led to the growth and expansion of paratransit modes. This has increased traffic congestion, traffic crashes and traffic pollution. This research assessed the effect of demographic characteristics on para transiting in Lagos with special focus on the mainland. To achieve the aim of this research, the mainland was divided into two zones based on the geographical location which are the Ikorodu and Ikeja zone. Domiciliary information techniques were used in data collection. This was backed up with an oral interview. Two hundred question (200) questionnaires were administered with 89% return rate. The information captured were demographic characteristics, the volume of trips, frequency of trips, trip types, operations of the paratransit transportation system, travel behaviour of passengers (travel time, travel cost, travel purpose). SPSS version 18 was used for the data analysis. The result of the survey revealed that paratransit modes serve as a feeder connection between neighbourhoods in the study area. Additionally, it provides a feeder connection between major arterial roads (truck A and B roads). Flexibility accounts for 41% of the reason why paratransit mode is preferred by respondents. The bivariate analysis showed a weak negative relationship for the correlation between frequency of trip and age. The outcome of this research will aid transportation planners, policymakers, and transportation experts on the appropriate strategy to adopt for effective mobility as a unimodal approach to providing effective movement may not be foreseeable in the study area.

Understanding the socioeconomic characteristics of paratransit drivers and their perceptions toward electric three-wheeled rickshaws in Delhi, India

In India, electric rickshaws (ERs) prove to be a sustainable and affordable paratransit mode for the public. The ER service is also creating employment and income opportunities for the unskilled labor force. Many Indian state governments are proposing ER services to cater to first and last-mile trips. Therefore, planners must identify the significant factors that can affect ER services' adoption and expansion. Because of this, the present study investigates the perceptions of drivers of three prominent paratransit modes toward ERs. The research also provides a better understanding of the socio-economic conditions of these paratransit drivers. The study utilizes data of 620 paratransit drivers obtained from a face-to-face survey conducted in Delhi, India. Grey relation analysis is applied to assess the three paratransit driver groups' perceptions about ERs. The data reveals that paratransit drivers belong mostly to low financial and educational backgrounds. Male drivers constitute many paratransit drivers in the city. The lack of facilities such as designated parking and fixed charging stations and fare regulation is perceived as critical ER services barriers. Similarly, the absence of separate lanes and unsafe overtaking attempts by fast-moving vehicles are the major causes of accidents involving ERs. Further, the light body of ERs and careless driving and traffic rule violations of drivers in mixed traffic conditions are the primary safety issues. The study also highlights potential policy recommendations to design an efficient electric version of the paratransit service for achieving sustainable development goals.

Passing behaviour on two-lane suburban arterials: an observation under mixed traffic with a significant fraction of battery-run e-rickshaws

In recent times, battery-operated e-rickshaws have gained popularity as a mode of Intermediate Public Transport (also known as paratransit mode) in the majority of the developing countries. They are growing very fast and have started replacing existing motorised paratransit vehicles. Static and dynamic characteristics of such vehicles are, however, quite different than those of motorised ones, and as a result of it, they interfere with operations of traffic while sharing the same road space to a great extent. The focus of this research was, therefore, to understand their impact on traffic when it is mixed in character. Based on a field study on two suburban arterials, the paper has shown that the rising growth of e-rickshaws increases the frequency of vehicle platooning and eventually results in a significant speed drop in the traffic stream. Analysis of overtaking data obtained from about 50 test runs on each study section reveals that a section of drivers tend to undertake unsafe overtaking attempts and number of such offenders’ crops up when the proportion of such modes increases further. In view of the practical implications of increasing the physical size of the existing infrastructure, the present paper explicates the need for suggesting appropriate traffic management schemes under the circumstances of mixed traffic dynamics.

Exploring usage patterns and safety perceptions of the users of electric three-wheeled paratransit in Patna, India

Electric three-wheelers (popularly known as electric rickshaws) are battery-powered vehicles that have emerged in many Indian cities as an environment-friendly and energy-efficient paratransit mode of transport. The government of India is developing policies for the broader adoption of the mode to promote sustainable mobility and accessibility. While many Indian cities have been operating electric rickshaws, little is documented about the usage patterns of this mode. An investigation into the usage patterns and safety perceptions of the riders would provide essential inputs to the planning and design of electric rickshaw services for a city. Using a primary data collected from Patna, India, the study explores the travel patterns and safety perceptions of electric rickshaw riders. Statistical models were developed to investigate the effects of socio-demographics and travel context attributes on trip rate, mode replacement and continuation of the use of electric rickshaws in the future. The analysis reveals that electric rickshaws replace a majority of trips made on conventional (gasoline-based) auto-rickshaws. It is found that electric rickshaw is a popular mode choice for educational—and shopping-related trips and students are the frequent users. Further, to identify the most relevant safety issues related to electric rickshaws, grey relation analysis (GRA) was applied to the scaled items. The results disclose that the users are highly concerned over the light body, solid covers and railings, and about the rear-end protection of the electric rickshaws. The on-board safety of small children is also of high concerns. Individuals who opine that electric rickshaws require rear-end protection or need solid covers and railings will be less likely to use this mode in the future. Further, females are less likely to continue the use whereas students would use electric rickshaws in the future, all else being equal. The findings of the study would help develop plans and policies for the improvement of electric rickshaw services to have a sustainable public transportation system that is less dependent on conventional fuels.

Passengers’ perceptions of safety in paratransit in the context of three-wheeled electric rickshaws in urban India

The electric rickshaw is a battery-powered three-wheeled paratransit that has gained popularity in urban India due to its flexible service and affordability. It is an environment-friendly and energy-efficient paratransit mode of transport. However, there remain serious concerns about the safety of its occupants in the heterogeneous traffic conditions prevailing in India. This paper presents a preliminary study to understand passengers’ perceptions of electric rickshaw safety in Patna, India. Such a study is important to design safer vehicles, promote safe driving behaviours, and create a safer driving environment. The study applies descriptive and econometric analyses to investigate the safety perceptions of 388 participants. The results reveal that there are two latent constructs associated with passengers’ attitudes towards safety, unsafe vehicle structure and unsafe vehicle dynamics. The first construct includes statements related to the structure of electric rickshaws such as an unstable body, the lack of rear-end protection, and absence of solid railings and coverings. The second construct includes statements concerning dynamic aspects of the rickshaw, such as fear of overturning and reckless driving. Further, this study finds that passengers’ perceptions of both safety constructs vary based on individual and household characteristics. The results suggest that females, older individuals, and high-income passengers are strongly dissatisfied with the unsafe structure and dynamics of the vehicle. Individuals from car-owning households display greater concern about the unsafe vehicle dynamics than those from non-car owning households,. Finally, the study estimates an empirical model to explore the overall safety perceptions of electric rickshaw riders. The model highlights that participants attach equal importance to both safety constructs and that there is no individual-level variation regarding the overall safety assessment of passengers, as reinforced by the statistical insignificance of socio-demographic characteristics.

Studying Operational Dynamics of Public Bus System: A Case of Lucknow City, India

In the era of rapid urbanization, the public bus system is struggling to become the main mode of transport in Indian cities. The co-existence of private city bus system and intermediate para-transit modes [shared auto-rickshaws, vikrams (6-8 seater shared 3-wheeler) and e-rickshaws] has created more competition for the public bus system instead of complementing it. This paper discusses the existing institutional arrangement of public bus systems in Lucknow city and identifies the challenges of organizations to operate an efficient public bus system. The study is based on primary survey and structured interviews of public bus service operators, representatives of private bus operators, representatives of employee unions, auto-rickshaw & vikram drivers, officials of public transport authority and Regional Transport Office (RTO). The study explores public bus governance system and administrative hierarchy of the city to understand its existing operational process. The role of travel cost and comfort in passenger’s choice of travel mode is discussed. The financial performance of the LCTSL shows the continuous losses. The paper contributes to identify the role of institutional framework to operate a successful public bus system. The analysis and findings will lead to the use of these modes in an integrated manner to complement and promote public bus system in a city.

Behavioural response of paratransit to formal public transport in hybrid systems

Abstract Paratransit often emerges in the absence of sufficient formal transit. As governments try to catch up and improve the formal transit service offering, their efforts are often undermined by the quick and dynamic response of the paratransit mode. Recent advances in transport modelling, using agent-based simulation, can provide better decision support. It can allow authorities to evaluate both the intended and unintended consequences of their decisions to introduce or change the formal transit. In this paper, we systematically evaluate paratransit’s response to changes in the formal transit and show that paratransit operators capitalise most on long headways of the formal service.

Determination of service quality attributes based on user perception for paratransit services in developing country like India

In case of developing countries like India, there is an urgent need to regulate the paratransit system because it faces various issues related to operation, service quality and enforcement. Regulation of these services requires delivery of services as per users’ expectations. Thus, this research aims to identify the paratransit service quality parameters based on users’ perception in Kolkata focusing on Eastern Metropolitan Bypass corridor (Ultadanga to Kamalgazi). This study focuses on auto-rickshaws, as these are the most popular mode amongst all types of paratransit modes in the city. 17 qualitative and quantitative paratransit service quality attributes were selected for the study area. Various surveys were conducted in order to assess the user perception. This data has been then analyzed with the help of RIDIT technique to prioritize the selected attributes. Results indicate that customer service, safety and security, service hours, environmental sustainability and headway of service has been perceived as most important attributes by the users. This is followed by the assessment of service delivery levels which is a function of users’ expectation from the services. In this research, concept of Zone of Tolerance is utilized to assess service delivery levels which are bounded by the desired service level and minimum acceptable service level of paratransit service. The results demonstrated that the users’ expectation varies significantly amongst user groups for certain service attributes such as auto stop proximity, delay in total journey time, etc. while the differences were minimal for other attributes such as service hours, crowding level inside the auto-rickshaw, etc.

Measuring individuals' travel behaviour by use of a GPS-based smartphone application in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

A range of mega-cities in the Global South have started to invest in Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, as a complement or replacement for informal paratransit services, in an effort to improve the mobility and accessibility in the city. Yet, few studies have tried to analyse the impact of such systems on the mobility patterns of cities' residents, in part because traditional travel diary surveys are often too expensive to conduct and unsuitable to capture spatial mobility patterns in fast growing cities with a high level of informality in spatial development. In this study, we analyse the applicability of a new method of data collection, i.e. a GPS-based smartphone application, to capture individuals travel behaviour in fast growing mega-cities in the Global South. Our case study is the city of Dar es Salaam (DES) in Tanzania, where the first BRT line is currently being implemented. In our study, the GPS-based app was used by individuals in DES to record distances, departure times and destinations of their trips. Socio-demographic data of respondents were recorded in short questionnaires. The spatial distribution of the trip patterns shows the mobility demand in both high and less connected areas. The results reveal a variation in departure times, travel destinations and trip distances that are one the one hand spatially limited within neighbourhoods and away from the planned BRT, and on the other hand along major roads connecting to the Central Business District (CBD). The short average distances of the trips (<3 km) reveal the characteristics of paratransit modes. The GPS-based smartphone application provides an opportunity to policy makers to engage deeply with the spatial reality of local communities, as a basis for transport investments and policy improvements as steps towards an integrated public transport system.

Anatomy of an Informal Transit City: Mobility Analysis of the Metropolitan Area of Lima

Lima, as the capital of Peru, has become its first megacity with more than 10 million people in an area that extends over 80 km in a North-South direction. As a city of this size, it faces complex mobility issues with a strong reliance on informal transport modes (buses, minibuses, and paratransit vehicles) due to the deterioration of its transit system quality during the 20th century. This paper examines the current urban situation in Lima through an analysis of the city’s structure, with an emphasis on its transport history and the resulting types of walking, transit, and car-oriented fabrics that can be identified. The mobility analysis was made through data collection, including daily trips by public and private modes, annual passenger kilometers and vehicle kilometers of travel, length of exclusive lanes for public transport and freeways, car and paratransit modes ownership, transport emissions, and safety. These data are used to position Lima in a comparative global context showing its relative strengths and weaknesses in urban form and mobility and providing suggestions for a more sustainable transport and land use system. It is asserted that Lima is an informal transit-oriented city, as distinct from recognized transit metropolises (e.g., Tokyo or German cities such as Berlin or Munich), which often involve private companies, operating under an umbrella of strong government regulation, fare setting, and high service standards. Lima is shown to have some important qualities such as a high density, comparatively low car ownership and freeway provision and still healthy levels of transit and non-motorized mode use despite non-ideal conditions for either. These qualities, if combined with effective governance structures, government commitment to higher quality formal transit systems, which better integrate the important informal transit sector, cessation of high capacity road building, greater protection and encouragement for non-motorized modes and some effective controls over growing car and motorcycle ownership, would see Lima develop a more sustainable transport system.