Palm Oil Fatty Acid Research Articles

Investigation into the Reduction of Palm Oil in Foods by Blended Vegetable Oils through Response Surface Methodology and Oxidative Stability Tests.

Recently, there has been a significant transition in the dietary preferences of consumers toward foods containing health-promoting compounds. In addition, as people's environmental awareness increases, they are increasingly looking for sustainable solutions. Palm oil, an oil used extensively by the food industry, does not fit these criteria. This study investigated the development of a complex oil blend consisting of commonly used vegetable oils such as corn, rapeseed, sunflower, and palm oil. The aim was to find the optimal blended oil and compare this combination with palm oil in terms of its oxidative stability, antioxidant capacity, and the composition of bioactive compounds (i.e., fatty acids, tocopherols, and carotenoids). Palm oil was found to have greater oxidative stability as a result of its increased concentration of saturated fatty acids. The optimal blended oil, which consisted of corn and rapeseed oil at a ratio of 4:3 w/w, inhibited the superior antioxidant activity, showing a ~33% increase in DPPH• inhibition activity. ATR-FTIR spectra further verified the existence of a significant quantity of saturated fatty acids in palm oil and unsaturated fatty acids in the blended oil. Finally, several correlation analyses revealed interesting connections between oil samples and investigated parameters. This work has the potential to establish a basis for the mass production of oil blends that possess high concentrations of antioxidant compounds and reduce the use of palm oil.

Synthesis of metal-free heteroatom (N, P, O, and B) doped biochar catalysts for enhanced catalytic co-pyrolysis of walnut shells and palm oil fatty acid distillate to produce high-quality bio-oil

In the current study, sugarcane bagasse-derived biochar catalysts were synthesized by doping with metal-free heteroatoms including nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, and boron and their efficacy was tested for catalytic co-pyrolysis of walnut shells (WS) and palm oil fatty acid distillate (PFAD) using Py-GC/MS. The biochar catalysts’ properties and their effectiveness on co-pyrolytic bio-oil (overall product distribution, selectivity towards aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, and carbon number ranges) were extensively examined. Among the various catalysts considered, boron-doped biochar (BCB) demonstrated effective performance due to an improved surface area, porosity, and acidity and resulted in a significantly increased hydrocarbon yield, particularly in the gasoline and diesel range, and preference for aromatic over aliphatic hydrocarbons. The optimum bio-oil quality was achieved at a feedstock-to-catalyst ratio of 2:1 and a pyrolysis temperature of 750 °C, with a hydrocarbon yield of 90.8 % and aromatic hydrocarbon selectivity of 63.5 %. Overall, the study underscores the role of BCB in fostering deoxygenation, decarboxylation, and aromatic selectivity via thermal and catalytic pathways, highlighting the potential of non-metallic doped biochars for bio-oil upgrading.

Life cycle assessment of a hybrid reverse osmosis hydrate-based desalination process

Trends in desalination technologies are shifting toward reducing the environmental impact of energy consumption while increasing economic feasibility. Accordingly, this study conducted a life cycle assessment (LCA) and an environmental life cycle cost (ELCC) analysis of a hybrid desalination process that combines reverse osmosis (RO) and hydrate-based desalination (HBD). The environmental impact assessment was conducted using the ReCiPe 2016 midpoint and endpoint methodology. Moreover, an ELCC analysis considering environmental cost (EC) was conducted to elucidate the influence of environmental impacts on economic performance. Case studies analyzed the environmental and economic differences arising from the use of four different feedstocks (natural gas liquid, soybean oil, palm oil fatty acid distillate, and used cooking oil) for propane as a hydrate former in HBD and assessed the impact of selling renewable energy certificates (RECs). The global warming potential (GWP) of the hybrid desalination process ranged from −2.66 to 0.04 kg CO2 eq/m3, with the lowest GWP when using used cooking oil and not selling RECs. This can be attributed to the energy savings compared to conventional desalination and indicates the importance of using sustainable feedstock to reduce the environmental impact of chemicals. The production costs when considering EC ranged from −2.86 to −2.29 $/m3, with the sale of electricity and RECs resulting in profits in all cases. In addition, using natural gas liquids and selling RECs was the most economical option. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the environmental and economic impact of hybrid desalination technologies and highlights their potential as an alternative to conventional methods in terms of sustainability and profitability.

Evaluation of a novel palm-free fat supplement to reduce the carbon footprint of diets for dairy cows

Most fat supplements added to dairy diets are derived from palm acid oil or palm fatty acid distillate. There are environmental concerns about palm oil production due to deforestation and high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The objective of this study was to evaluate a palm-free fat supplement, Envirolac. Envirolac contains vegetable oils, marine oils and glycerine encapsulated within a cellulosic fibre-clay mineral carrier matrix. The carrier matrix has small particle size to facilitate rapid rumen passage and minimal interference with rumen digestion. Fifty cows were divided into two balanced groups of 25 cows. Each group received Control (calcium soap of palm fatty acid distilate, 0.5 kg/d) and Envirolac (0.5 kg/d) diets in a crossover design with two feeding periods of four weeks duration, so that each cow received both diets. Envirolac has a lower total fat concentration than the calcium soap, so the feeding rate delivered less total fat. When fed on Envirolac, cows yielded more milk 40.7 v 40.1 kg/d), energy-corrected milk (ECM; 42.9 v 41.3 kg/d) and milk components (1605 v 1514 g fat, 1239 v 1199 g protein, 1871 v 1839 g lactose, per day), and produced milk with higher concentrations of fat (40.1 v 38.6 g/kg) and protein (30.7 v 30.1 g/kg), than when fed on Control. When fed on Envirolac, cows produced milk with higher concentrations of fatty acids (FA) synthesised de novo in the mammary gland (25.5 v 23.6 g/100 g total FA), lower concentration of palmitic acid (35.5 v 37.2 g/100 g total FA), and higher concentrations of some long-chain fatty acids (C20:0, C20:1, C20:3n3, C21:0, C22:0, C22:6n3 and C23:0), than when fed on Control. There was no effect of treatment on dry matter intake (DMI; mean 23.4 kg/d), so feed efficiency was higher (1.83 v 1.76 kg ECM/kg DMI) for Envirolac than Control. There was no effect of treatment on dry matter digestibility (0.73), methane production (433 g/d), methane yield (19.3 g/kg DMI) or methane intensity (10.9 g/kg ECM). Feed carbon footprint of Envirolac was calculated to be 1028 g CO2eq/kg DM, which is 0.46 of the value for a calcium soap (2830 g CO2eq/kg DM), and reduced feed carbon footprint per kg ECM milk production by 11 %. This study demonstrates that Envirolac can replace palm-based fat supplements in dairy diets to improve feed efficiency and reduce the carbon footprint of milk production.

Effect of Chitosan Addition on Porosity of Rice Husk Calcium Silicate Used for Free Fatty Acid Adsorbent from Palm Oil

Studies have been done on developing calcium silicate pores derived from rice husk with and without including chitosan as a template. The chitosan solution was supplemented with sodium silicate derived from rice husk, and then CaCl2 was added. The calcium silicate was calcinated at 900ºC for 4 h. The calcium silicate obtained was characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis. The XRD analysis showed the presence of diffraction peaks corresponding to Wollastonite (CaSiO3) crystals, Wollastonite 2m (CaSiO3), Alite (Ca3SiO5), and larnite (Ca2SiO4). Next, the FT-IR spectrum exhibits Si-O-Si, Si-O-Ca, and Si-OH functional groups, suggesting the presence of calcium silicate material. The BET study of calcium silicate using chitosan templates revealed a pore size of 3.88 nm, a pore volume of 0.1577 cc/g, and a surface area of 81.1519 m2/g. The BET analysis results obtained differed from those of the BET analysis of calcium silicate conducted without using chitosan templates, which were 2.06 nm, 0.069 cc/g, and 13.531 m2/g, respectively. The developed mesoporous calcium silicate was employed as an adsorbent to decrease the concentrations of free fatty acids in palm oil. The acid-base titration method is used to evaluate quantities of free fatty acids. The results obtained from the computation of free fatty acid levels indicate a decline in the concentration of free fatty acids in palm oil. The concentration of free fatty acids derived from palm oil was 1.23%. Therefore, mesoporous calcium silicate-free fatty acids at a concentration of 1.06% resulted in an 86.1% reduction.

Analysis of the effect of time and heat on free fatty acid levels in dura and tenera palm oil

Palm oil is one of the most extensively used edible oils in the world due to its low cost relative to other edible oils. Free fatty acids in palm oil are a key feature linked to its quality and commercial value. Palm oils which have high free fatty acids content are poor in quality and suffer significant losses during the refining process and also affect consumer’s health. Free fatty acids in palm oil were determined by titration method with a preferable index showing the comparison among Zomi palm oil, Abepa palm oil and Agric palm oil with three different storage times after production. The free fatty acid contents by prolonged heating of the palm oils at a standard temperature were determined. Different time ranges in five trials of heating of the samples of palm oil were performed. High free fatty acid content was observed with longer storage and heating. The Zomi palm oil had the highest free acid content while the Agric palm oil had the lowest free fatty acid content after four minutes of heating.

Enhanced stability of natural vitamin E from palm oil by forming inclusion complexes with cyclodextrin and its application on PLA fabric

Vitamin E extracted from palm oil and palm fatty acid distillate, through biodiesel conversion, was stabilized by forming inclusion complexes with β-CD and HP-β-CD. These complexes were successfully applied to nonwoven PLA fabrics.

Study of thermal stability of monoalkyl (С8-С12) phenol formaldehydes functionalized with imidazolines based on fatty acids of palm oil and polyamines

The article provides information about thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis of monoalkyl (C8-C12) phenolformaldehyde oligomers functionalized with imidazolines obtained at different molar ratios of polyethylenepolyamines and their low-boiling fractions – diethylenetriamine, triethylenetetramine with a mixture of fatty acids of palm oil. It was established that thermal stability of monoalkyl (C8-C12) FFO modified by imidazolins is higher than that of an unmodified oligomer. The multi-stage destruction of the synthesized nitrogen-containing oligomers is explained by their complex structure, and the article also describes possible decay processes in individual stages.

Synthesis of Ketones from Palm Fatty Acids Over Layered Double Hydroxide Mg/Al/Cu Catalyst

The synthesis of ketones from C18:1 fatty acid using the fatty acid decarboxylation method has been carried out to increase the added value of oil palm derivative products. One of the derivative products of palm oil is Crude Palm Oil, which can be converted into fatty acids through the triglyceride hydrolysis process. Currently, palm oil fatty acids are the most potential environmentally friendly raw material in Indonesia. This research aims to synthesize ketones from palm oil fatty acids under different fatty acid types and catalyst concentrations. Ketone compounds were synthesized using a base catalyst of solid layered double hydroxide based on Mg/Al/Cu environmentally friendly because it does not produce by-products that can become pollutants. The ketone product was analyzed using the Fehling test, Tollens test, and FTIR. The results showed that the success of ketone synthesis using the fatty acid decarboxylation method into ketones through the Fehling test that red brick precipitate did not form and the Tollens test also indicated no silver mirror formation. Meanwhile, the results of the FTIR test showed the presence of ketone compounds at peak frequencies of 1697–1710 cm-1. This study confirms that ketones produced from fatty acids have the potential to be environmentally friendly raw materials for diesel fuel, lubricants, and surfactants.

The Positional Distribution of Fatty Acids in Palm Oil and Lard Influences Their Biologic Effects in Rats

Dietary fatty acids in the sn-2 position are preferentially absorbed as monoacylglycerols. To determine whether they also have more important biologic effects, rats were fed for 2 and 4 mo a purified diet containing native palm oil, interesterified palm oil, native lard or interesterified lard. Interesterification that increased or decreased the level of fatty acids in position 2 depending on the fat, resulted in significant corresponding changes in the fecal excretion of saturated fatty acids. Fecal excretion of saturated fatty acids was associated with significant changes in some plasma fatty acids. Interesterification in lard resulted in significantly lower plasma triglycerides, and in palm oil, increased platelet aggregation induced by ADP. Lipemia, platelet aggregation and associated plasma fatty acids (palmitic, heneicosanoic and docosahexaenoic acids) were significantly affected only by dietary fatty acids at the sn-2 position. Even without changes in absorption, only linoleic acid in position 2 was correlated with the plasma concentration of the corresponding longer chain arachidonic acid. These results in rats confirm that the fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated) in position 2 of dietary triglycerides play a crucial role in the metabolism and biologic effects of these fatty acids.

Recent advances in synthesis of polymers based on palm oil and its fatty acids.

Palm oil is a versatile bio-renewable resource for consumer products, oleochemicals, and biofuels. The utilization of palm oil in polymer production as a bio-based polymer is considered a promising alternative to conventional petrochemical-based polymers due to its non-toxicity, biodegradability, and vast obtainability. Triglycerides and fatty acids in palm oil and their derivatives can be utilized as bio-based monomers for synthesizing polymers. This review summarizes the recent advancement in using palm oil and its fatty acids for polymer synthesis and their applications. Moreover, this review will overview the most commonly used synthesis pathways for producing palm oil-based polymers. Therefore, this review can be used as a reference for designing a new approach to synthesizing palm oil-based polymers with desired properties.

Feeding of palm oil fatty acids or rapeseed oil throughout lactation: Effects on mammary gene expression and milk production in Norwegian dairy goats.

Lipid added as rapeseed or palm oil to the diet of dairy goats over 8 mo of one lactation alters fat secretion and milk fatty acid (FA) and protein composition. In this study, we examined the contribution of mammary gene expression to these changes and included 30 multiparous goats of Norwegian dairy goat breed for a 230-d experimental period, with indoor feeding from 1 to 120 d in milk (DIM), mountain grazing from 120 to 200 DIM, and indoor feeding from 200 to 230 DIM. After an initial period (1-60 DIM) when the control diet was given to all goats, the animals were subdivided into 3 groups of 10 goats. Treatments (60-230 DIM) were basal concentrate (control) alone or supplemented with either 8% (by weight) hydrogenated palm oil enriched with palmitic acid (POFA) or 8% (by weight) rapeseed oil (RSO). Milk was sampled individually from all animals throughout lactation, at 60, 120, 190, and 230 DIM for milk yield and composition. On d 60, 120, 190, and 230, mammary tissue was collected by biopsy to measure mRNA abundance of 19 key genes. None of the 19 genes involved in milk protein, apoptosis, lipid metabolism, transcription factors, and protein of the milk fat globule membrane, as measured by mRNA abundance, were affected by the lipid supplements, although POFA increased milk fat content, and POFA and RSO affected milk FA composition. Over the experimental period (120-230 DIM), the mRNA abundance of 13 of the 19 studied genes was affected by lactation stage. For some genes, expression either gradually increased from 120 to 230 DIM (CSN2, CASP8, CD36, GLUT4) or increased from 120 to 200 and then remained stable (XDH), or decreased (CSN3, G6PD, SREBF1, PPARG1) or increased only at 230 DIM (SCD1, SCD5, ELF3). For a second group of genes (CSN1, LALBA, FABP3, FASN, LPL, MFGE8), expression was stable over the lactation period. Our results suggest that factors other than gene expression, such as substrate availability or posttranscriptional regulation of these genes, could play an important role in the milk fat and FA responses to dietary fat composition in the goat. In conclusion, mammary gene expression in goats was more regulated by stage of lactation than by the dietary treatments applied.

Optimization and lubrication properties of Malaysian crude palm oil fatty acids based neopentyl glycol diester green biolubricant

Green biolubricant base stock based on crude palm oil fatty acids (CPOFAs) was produced through acid catalyst esterification of palm oil fatty acids with neopentyl glycol (NPG). The response surface methodology (RSM) of D-optimal design was employed to optimize the esterification process. The resultant polyol ester, crude palm oil fatty acids-NPG diester (CPOFAs-NPGDE) was evaluated its lubrication properties. The optimal condition for the esterification process was obtained at CPOFAs:NPG molar ratio of 2.26:1, 1.12% H2SO4 catalyst, reaction temperature of 138 °C for 4.79 h reaction time, respectively. The optimal CPOFAs-NPGDE produced was 87.6% yield with 100% diester selectivity. The resultant ester showed good lubrication properties with oxidative stability temperature at 184 °C, pour point at 10 °C, flash point at 235 °C and viscosity index of 190. Tribological tests showed that COFAs-NPGDE has shown low coefficient friction of hydrodynamic regime of 0.20 at 40 °C and 0.19 at 100 °C and comparable with some commercial lubricants. Rheological tests show that CPOFAs-NPGDE can be classified as a Newtonian fluid with good lubrication properties within ISO VG 46 lubricant grade. This make it plausible to be used for green industrial lubrication applications such as hydraulic oil, compressor and turbine fluids.

The Effects of High-Fat Diets from Calcium Salts of Palm Oil on Milk Yields, Rumen Environment, and Digestibility of High-Yielding Dairy Cows Fed Low-Forage Diet.

Simple SummaryCalcium salts of fatty acids from palm oil represent a very common supplement in dairy cows’ diets. The present results show that including up to 3.9% of CS-PFA in lactating cow rations with low fiber content did not affect milk and fat yields, decreased protein percentages and yields, reduced rumen fermentation, and decreased the total-tract apparent digestibility of NDF. In spite of the negative effects on rumen fermentation and digestibility, the adverse effects on yields were minor, which indicates that, under specific circumstances, feeding high-fat diets containing large amounts of CS-PFA to dairy cows fed low-fiber diets is possible.Instability in grain prices led to continuing worldwide growth in the proportion of fat supplements in lactating cows’ rations. However, fat supplementation was associated with decreases in feed intake, rumen fermentation, and feed digestibility. The present objectives were to test the effects of high-fat diets from calcium salts of palm oil fatty acids (CS-PFA) in lactating cow rations containing high proportions of concentrate, on feed intake, milk yields, rumen environment, and digestibility. Forty-two multiparous mid-lactation dairy cows were assigned to three treatments, designated as low fat (LF), moderate fat (MF), and high fat (HF) that contained (on DM basis), respectively, (i) 4.7% total fat with 1.7% CS-PFA, (ii) 5.8% total fat with 2.8% CS-PFA, and (iii) 6.8% total fat with 3.9% CS-PFA. Rumen samples were collected for pH, ammonia, and volatile fatty acid (VFA) measurements, and fecal grab samples were collected for digestibility measurements. A numerical trend of decreasing dry matter intake with increasing CS-PFA in diet was observed: 28.7, 28.5, and 28.1 kg/day in LF, MF, and HF, respectively (p < 0.20). No differences between treatments were observed in milk yields and milk-fat percentages, but protein percentage in milk tended to fall with increasing dietary CS-PFA content (p < 0.08), which resulted in 6.4% smaller protein yields in the HF than in the LF group (p < 0.01). Milk urea nitrogen was 15.3% higher in HF than in LF cows (p < 0.05). Rumen pH was higher at all sampling times in the MF and HF than in the LF cows. Concentrations of propionic acid and total VFA were higher in LF than in MF and HF cows. The apparent total-tract digestibility of dry matter was higher with LF than with HF (p < 0.002), and that of organic matter was lowest with the HF diet (p < 0.005). The apparent NDF digestibility declined with increasing dietary fat content, and it was 8.5 percentage points lower in HF than in LF cows (p < 0.009). Apparent fat digestibility increased with increasing dietary fat content, and it was higher by 10.4 percentage points in the HF than in the LF group (p < 0.004). In conclusion, diets with high concentrate-to-forage ratios, containing up to 6.8% total fat and 3.9% CS-PFA, negatively affected rumen fermentation and NDF digestibility in high-yielding dairy cows; however, the effects on yields were minor, indicating that, under specific circumstances, the inclusion of large amounts of CS-PFA in dairy cows’ rations with low fiber content is feasible.

Effect of palmitic, linoleic and α-linolenic acids on blood cells count and interleukin-4, 8 genes expression in lambs experimentally infected with foot and mouth disease virus

The current research was conducted to study the effects of different saturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acid sources in diets on immune responses of lambs experimentally infected with foot and mouth disease virus. A total of fifteen Sangsari male lambs with an average body weight of 48 ± 2 kg and an average age of 8 ± 1 months were randomly allocated to one of three experimental treatments: (1) PalOil group received a calcium soap of palm oil fatty acids in the diet as source of palmitic acid (16:0), (2) SunOil group received a calcium soap of sunflower oil fatty acids in the diet as source of linoleic acid (n-6 18:2), and (3) LinOil group received a calcium soap of linseed oil fatty acids in the diet as source of α-linolenic acid (n-3 18:3). The greatestand the least expression of IL-4 mRNA were measured in SunOil and LinOil groups, respectively. Expression of IL-8 mRNA was greater in SunOil treatment when compared with PalOil and LinOil groups. In conclusion, the results of the study confirmed that inclusion of α-linolenic acid in virally infected lambs’diet results in lower expression of IL-4 and IL-8 mRNA.

Biomarkers for negative energy balance and fertility in early lactating dairy cows

Most dairy cows suffer from negative energy balance in early lactation that can affect their fertility. Adding fat to the cattle diet increases the diet energy content. In this study, ketone bodies (acetone and acetoacetate), nonesterified fatty acids (NEFAs), and some individual fatty acids in serum and milk were used as biomarkers for negative energy balance and fertility in dairy cows supplemented with two sources of fat. A comparison of calcium salts of palm oil fatty acid versus MixPro-omega-3 (a heat-treated linseed oil) diet on the level of fatty acids in serum and milk of early lactating Holstein cows was assessed in relation to their fertility. The diets were formulated to be iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric. Two diets were provided from day 0 to 30 days postpartum. Blood and milk samples were collected at 1st, 2nd, and 3rd weeks after calving. Results revealed that the increased serum and milk linoleic and linolenic acid with decreased saturated (palmitic and stearic acid) fatty acids and oleic acid are related to improved energy status with decreasing the ketone bodies and (NEFAs), and enhance the fertility of dairy cows received MixPro-omega-3 when compared with calcium soap fed group. The level of ketone bodies and NEFAs, increased in milk than in serum in the same group. The fertility was enhanced by giving MixPromega-3 diet compared with calcium soap diet.

Palm Oil Fatty Acid Epigenetically Linked to Metastasis

Palm Oil Fatty Acid Epigenetically Linked to Metastasis

Palm oil in diets for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) post-larvae

The objectives of this research were to evaluate the effects of the substitution of soybean oil by palm oil in the diet of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) post-larvae, to observe the performance and attractiveness of the feed, and to evaluate the fatty acid methyl esters profile of palm oil. Four hundred Nile tilapias were used after hatching (seven days old), distributed in 20 fiberglass tanks of 20 L each. The experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design with five treatments and four replicates. The treatments consisted of different levels of inclusion of palm oil, which were: 0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 and 6.0 %. The concentration of monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids in palm oil was measured, resulting in high amounts of palmitic, oleic and linoleic fatty acids. Significant differences were observed for the variables final weight, total length, weight gain, specific growth rate and condition factor. No significant differences were observed for palatability of the diets. It is concluded that the inclusion of 3% or more palm oil in substitution of soybean oil during the masculinization stage of tilapia larvae contributes to the improvement of productive parameters.

Effect of Different Fatty Acids Sources on Some Blood Factors and Interleukin Gene Expression in Finishing Lambs

The current research was conducted to study the effects of different fatty acids sources in the diet on blood metabolites and hormones in finishing lambs experimentally infected with the virus that causes foot and mouth disease. A total of fifteen Sangsari male lambs with an average live weight of 48±2 kg and an average age of 8±1 month were randomly assigned to one of three dietary experimental treatments as follows: 1) Calcium soap of palm oil fatty acids (PO) as a source of palmitic acid (16:0); 2) Calcium soap of sunflower oil fatty acids (SO) as the source of linoleic acid (n-6 18:2); and 3) Calcium soap of linseed oil fatty acids (LO) as the source of α-linolenic acid (n-3 18:3). The lambs were housed in individual pens and offered the iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous diets for 28 days including 21 days of adaptation period and 7 days of the sampling period. The results illustrated that the lowest and the highest expression of IL-4 mRNA were measured in LO and SO treatments, respectively. Expression of IL-8 mRNA was lower in LO and PO treatments when compared with SO. The highest level of glucose in LO treatment when compared with sunflower oil or palm oil. Lambs on the LO diet showed the highest blood concentration of insulin and the lowest blood concentration of glucagon when compared with lams on SO and PO diets. The highest blood contents of triiodothyronine and thyroxin hormones were measured in lambs on the LO diet when compared with other treatments. However, the concentration of blood glucose, insulin, glucagon, triiodothyronine, and thyroxin were the same between PO and SO groups. In conclusion, the findings of the current experiment confirmed that the inclusion of α-linolenic acid but not linoleic acid in the diet of virus-infected lambs suppressed pro-inflammation with lowering expression of IL-4 and IL-8 mRNA and increased blood glucose, insulin, T3, and T4 which may lead to higher weight gain and feed efficiency of virally infected lambs.

Effect of Microwave Power and Extraction Time on Crude Palm Oil Quality Using Microwave-Assisted Extraction Process

The aim of this study is to evaluate microwave-assisted extraction at several microwave power and extraction time in extracting oil palm products, such as crude palm oil (CPO) and palm fatty acid (PFA) composition. The exposure time was shortened and overheating was avoided when sterilized mesocarp exposed to microwave prior to Soxhlet extraction in order to obtain good quality oil. The effects of CPO extraction and PFA composition on the distillate produced were investigated. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used for the determination and quantification of PFA composition in the distilled products. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) reveals that the microwave-assisted extraction technique had efficiently assisted in the release of oil by breaking down the mesocarp cell structure. To fill the research gap of microwave-assisted sterilization in the previous research, microwave-assisted extraction was introduced, in which two processes (i.e., extraction and drying) were conducted in one equipment. Oil yield and color, free fatty acids (FFA), Deterioration of Bleachability Index (DOBI), and carotene contents of the CPO were quantified. At 100 W, the extraction of CPO demonstrated 64% yield produced, with chemical properties of 0.301% FFA, 3.53 DOBI and 1132 ppm carotene with final temperature of 76.2°C during microwave-assisted extraction. The optimum condition for extracting PFA distillate was 300 W for 30 min of exposure time. Additionally, distillate obtained at the optimum condition using microwave-assisted extraction consisted of high palmitic acid (C16:0), caramel-like aroma, and possessed a sweet fragrance.