Oil Palm Development Research Articles

Ecuador’s National Interpretation of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO): Green-Grabbing through Green Certification?

Este estudio analiza un nuevo acuerdo de gobernanza colaborativa ‘verde” conocido como la Mesa Redonda sobre Aceite de Palma Sostenible (RSPO) en Ecuador y cómo este espacio puede ser un nuevo sitio para la institucionalización de las políticas ambientales que sancionan los casos de despojo de tierras y facilitar incentivos para las nuevas formas de recintos de la tierra. En Ecuador, la RSPO se ha convertido en una institución de gobierno de colaboración que tiene como objetivo hacer frente a los efectos sociales y ambientales adversos que pueden acompañar a la adquisición de tierras legales e ilegales para el cultivo de palma. La iniciativa consiste en una variedad de ‘partes interesadas’ y llama a los actores para dar prioridad a la ‘sostenibilidad’ como una condición no-negociable para el desarrollo del aceite de palma. Cada vez más, sin embargo, la evidencia sugiere que en lugar de mejorar las desigualdades en la industria del aceite de palma, la RSPO es meramente un negocio que siempre ha estado en la sombra, pero ya es ‘verde’. Además, muchos apuntan a la RSPO como el establecimiento de un terreno para prácticas de ‘acaparamiento verde’. Este estudio sostiene que ciertos procesos de disciplina que el régimen RSPO promueve, como los planes para la titulación de tierras, la participación excluyente y la cultura capitalista de reunión, pueden exacerbar los conflictos sociales y ambientales mediante la estructuración del debate de colaboración al tiempo que establece los criterios de calificación que limitará ciertas oportunidades futuras. Estos procesos pueden, cada vez más, estructurar las políticas y en última instancia fomentar y legitimar la práctica material de la adquisición de tierras verdes en Ecuador.

Oil Palm and Deforestation in Papua New Guinea

AbstractAn unprecedented increase in oil palm developments may be underway in Papua New Guinea (PNG) through controversial “special agricultural and business leases” (SABLs) covering over two million hectares. Oil palm development can create societal benefits, but doubt has been raised about whether the SABL developers intend establishing plantations. Here, we examine the development objectives of these proposals through an assessment of their land suitability, developer experience and capacity, and sociolegal constraints. Our review reveals 36 oil palm proposals with plantings planned for 948,000 ha, a sevenfold increase over the existing planted area in PNG. Based on our criteria, however, we estimate that only five plantations covering 181,700 ha might eventuate within the foreseeable future. We conclude that most of the developers are clearing forest with no intention of cultivating oil palm, and that a large‐scale land grab is therefore occurring in PNG under the guise of oil palm development.

Environmental Impacts of Large‐Scale Oil Palm Enterprises Exceed that of Smallholdings in Indonesia

AbstractThe expansion of large‐scale oil palm plantations in Indonesia has taken a heavy toll on forests, biodiversity, and carbon stocks but little is known about the environmental impacts from the smallholder sector. Here, we compare the magnitude of forest and carbon loss attributable to smallholdings, private enterprises, and state‐owned oil palm plantations in Sumatra. During 2000–2010, oil palm development accounted for the loss of 4,744 ha of mangrove, 383,518 ha of peat swamp forest, 289, 406 ha of lowland forest, and 1,000 ha of lower montane forest. Much of this deforestation was driven by private enterprises (88.3%) followed by smallholdings (10.7%) and state‐owned plantations (0.9%). Oil palm‐driven deforestation in Sumatra resulted in 756–1,043 Mt of total gross carbon dioxide emissions, of which ∼90% and ∼9% can be attributed to private enterprises and smallholdings, respectively. While private enterprises are responsible for the bulk of environmental impacts, the smallholder oil palm sector exhibits higher annual rates of expansion (11%) compared to private enterprises (5%). Both sectors will need careful monitoring and engagement to develop successful strategies for mitigating future environmental impacts of oil palm expansion.

Biochemical characterisation during seed development of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)

Developmental biochemical information is a vital base for the elucidation of seed physiology and metabolism. However, no data regarding the biochemical profile of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) seed development has been reported thus far. In this study, the biochemical changes in the developing oil palm seed were investigated to study their developmental pattern. The biochemical composition found in the seed differed significantly among the developmental stages. During early seed development, the water, hexose (glucose and fructose), calcium and manganese contents were present in significantly high levels compared to the late developmental stage. Remarkable changes in the biochemical composition were observed at 10weeks after anthesis (WAA): the dry weight and sucrose content increased significantly, whereas the water content and hexose content declined. The switch from a high to low hexose/sucrose ratio could be used to identify the onset of the maturation phase. At the late stage, dramatic water loss occurred, whereas the content of storage reserves increased progressively. Lauric acid was the most abundant fatty acid found in oil palm seed starting from 10 WAA.

Effect of source/sink ratios on yield components, growth dynamics and structural characteristics of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) bunches

Source/sink ratios are known to be one of the main determinants of oil palm growth and development. A long-term experiment (9 years) was conducted in Indonesia on mature oil palms subjected to continuous bunch ablation and partial defoliation treatments to artificially modify source/sink ratios. During the experiment, all harvested bunches were dissected and phenological measurements were carried out to analyse the effect of source/sink ratios on yield components explaining variations in bunch number, the number of fruits per bunch and oil dry weight per fruit. An integrative variable (supply/demand ratio) describing the ratio between the assimilate supply from sources and the growing organ demand for carbohydrate was computed for each plant on a daily basis from observations of the number of developing organs and their sink strength, and of climate variables. Defoliation and bunch ablation affected the bunch number and the fruit number per bunch. Variations in bunch number per month were mainly due to variations in the fraction of aborted inflorescence and in the ratio between female and male inflorescences. Under fluctuating trophic conditions, variations in fruit number per bunch resulted both from changes in fruit-set and in the number of branches (rachillae) per inflorescence. For defoliated plants, the decrease in the number of developing reproductive sinks appeared to be sufficient to maintain fruit weight and oil concentration at the control level, without any major decrease in the concentration of non-structural carbohydrate reserves. Computation of the supply/demand ratio revealed that each yield component had a specific phase of sensitivity to supply/demand ratios during inflorescence development. Establishing quantitative relationships between supply/demand ratios, competition and yield components is the first step towards a functional model for oil palm.

DAMPAK PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT RAKYAT TERHADAP PENDAPATAN WILAYAH DESA DI PROVINSI JAMBI

Smallholder oil palm estate in Jambi Province is growing. Some indicators are land development, production, and employment. Smallholder oil palm estate can be a major driver of the economy so that the country can move other economic sectors, such as trade, transport, electricity and gas, manufacture small industrial and other sectors, which in turn increases the income of the village as a whole. This study aimed to determine (1) the development of oil palm estate seen from land, production, and employment in the province of Jambi (2) Impact of smallholder oil palm estate against Gross Regional Domestic Product Villages in Jambi Province. The research method used in this study is a survey method. This method of research was done deductively, by conducting an analysis of the object. Data were collected from primary sources and secondary sources. The development of oil palm plantations quantitatively analyzed descriptively. To determine whether the development of oil palm plantations had such an impact is determined by the formula LQ (Location Quotient) and the magnitude of the impact made by Formula ME (multiplier effect). To determine the value of LQ and ME the sample villages can be determined that a major driver of the sector (Prime mover sector) in the village economy. These results indicate that oil palm plantations have grown rapidly both views of land, production, and employment. Oil palm plantations have an impact on the income of the people of the village, where 9 of 20 samples villages have values LQ>1 with the average ME value was 1.4107, which means that any increase in palm oil revenue amounted toRp1, -it will be able to increase the income of the region village as a whole amounted to1.4107times. The impact is especially true of the sub-sectors of trade, transport sub-sector, and electricity and gas sub-sector. The impact is small relative to the manufacturing sector.Key words: smallholders oil palm estate, GRDB of villages, LQ, and ME.

ANALISIS FAKTOR-FAKTOR DETERMINASI PASAR BENIH KELAPA SAWIT DI INDONESIA

* Plant Production and Biotechnology Division, PT SMART Tbk., Jakarta** Manajemen dan Bisnis, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor.Email : toniyLiwang@smart-tbk.comABSTRACTThe development of oil palm (Elaeis guinensis Jacq.) industry in Indonesia was very fast,especially within the last decade. This rapid development was in line with the increasing of land usedfor oil palm plantation and the availability of oil palm hybrid seeds. Until 2009 the demand of oilpalm certified hybrid seeds was beyond its supply which has resulted into the usage of the illegal oilpalm seeds with low quality. One of the strategies to solve the shortage of certified hybrid seeds wasto increase the number of seed producer in Indonesia, so that since 2009 the oil palm seeds produceddomestically was over supplied. However, the usage of illegal oil palm seeds was still taking place.Therefore, this research was designed to analysis the determinant factors of oil palm seeds market inIndonesia based on consumer's demography profile, purpose and frequency seed purchase,costumer satisfaction level and seed compatibility. This research was based on the survey taken fromthe respondents in the regency of Siak, Kampar and Rokan Hulu, province of Riau. Selection of therespondents was used the convenience sampling method and later on by judgmental sampling. Slovinmethod was used to determine number of respondent. Data was analyzed using descriptive analysisand ordinal logistic regression analysis. The results of data analysis shown that the amount of soldseeds was depend on demographic factors, i.e. gender, education level, activity and consumer statusin company, but not age of consumers. The purpose and frequency to purchase the oil palm seedswere negatively correlated to the number of sold seeds. Moreover, the level of customer satisfactionhas significant effect on the number of sold seeds.Keyword: consumer, seed, oil palm, determinant factors, analysis of ordinal logistic.

The Last Swiddens of Sarawak, Malaysia

Swidden cultivation was observed to be under pressure but still persisting in many areas in Sarawak, Malaysia around 2000–2003. Since then rapid development of smallholder oil palm and rubber, continuing urbanization and rural to urban migration appear to have considerably reduced the area under swidden cultivation. With the aim of understanding the extent and impacts of this development, 55 households in three communities that were interviewed in 2002–2003 were re-interviewed in 2011. In an area with rapid oil palm development, the households engaged in smallholder oil palm production have experienced considerable improvements in income and wealth whereas the other households have experienced more limited wealth increases or even a decline in income. Many households have decreased or abandoned cultivation of upland rice, which used to be the core of the swidden cultivation system, and the upland soils in the area are now dominated by oil palm. In another area, where no oil palm development has taken place because of a hydroelectric dam, upland rice fields under swidden cultivation have also decreased and new high yielding rubber is now being planted because of the favorable rubber prices. Moreover, tourism has in this area gained further economic importance and overtaken agriculture as the main economic activity of households. The demise of swidden has not yet occurred in Sarawak, but a continued decline has been observed. However, there is a possibility that the new smallholder oil palm and rubber may provide an opportunity for a new type of ‘productive fallow’ that will allow continued cultivation of upland rice on a small scale.

Palmed Off: Incentive Problems with Joint-Venture Schemes for Oil Palm Development on Customary Land

The oil palm boom has prompted governments and plantation companies to find ways to incorporate customary landholders in large-scale plantation developments. This paper examines the joint-venture model that has been widely promoted in Sarawak, Malaysia. Principal–agent theory is used to analyze the structural relations between the actors in joint-venture projects—the landholders, the government agency that acts as their trustee, and the private investor. The analysis shows that unequal access to information and influence has compromised the stated objectives of the joint-venture schemes, leaving customary landholders vulnerable to significant exploitation and losses. Thus there has been a systematic failure to achieve the anticipated developmental outcomes.

Influence of soil aggregate size on greenhouse gas emission and uptake rate from tropical peat soil in forest and different oil palm development years

The influence of oil palm development on tropical peat soil decomposition rate was investigated by an incubation experiment. Soil samples from soil surface and around underground water table were taken from forest site, and oil palm site at 1st and 9th year after development. The soil samples were sieved into 0–2mm, 2–8mm and 8–20mm and analyzed for carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes.The development of oil palm did not change the CO2 emissions and showed inconsistent influence on CH4 flux according to aggregate size, while significantly higher N2O emissions were found for aggregates 0–2mm at high moisture of oil palm plantation soils compared with the original forest. Nitrous oxide fluxes showed significant positive correlation with the CO2 flux, which indicated that soil organic matter decomposition was closely related to the N2O production. On the other hand, CH4 flux showed clear emission for aggregates bigger than 2mm, while aggregates size 0–2mm showed consistent CH4 uptake. These results showed that investigation of greenhouse gas emissions in tropical peat soil must take into account the aggregate characteristics of the soil, which are inhomogeneous and mixed with fresh organic matter.

URGENSI PEMBANGUNAN AGROINDUSTRI KELAPA SAWIT BERKELANJUTAN UNTUK MENGURANGI PEMANASAN GLOBAL

This paper was done to learn about the urgency of sustainability in agroindustry palm oil development to reduce global warming. Nowadays global warming should reduce its bad influence to all of us. As part of role in creation of global warming, palm oil industry have to conduct sustainable development. Various tool can be implemented for reach it such as AMDAL, Ecolabelling, ISO 14000, cleaner production and Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). Conducting of sustainable agroindustry sustainability could maintain our environment sustainable with the ultimate goal to reduce global warming. could keep our environment sustainable which due to reduce global warming

Land, Food, and Biodiversity

Land, Food, and Biodiversity

Swimming Upstream: Local Indonesian Production Networks in “Globalized” Palm Oil Production

When agricultural commodities in developing countries experience an economic boom, they offer potential pathways out of poverty while creating environmental and social problems. While recent research provides insights into the governance of international supply chains, it provides less analysis of the local production networks creating critical problems. Indonesia is now the world’s largest exporter of crude palm oil. This paper analyses processes of oil palm development in three oil palm districts. It considers how policy models, regime interests, and agribusiness strategies shape local production networks, generate local outcomes, and affect the possibilities of tackling issues associated with this boom.

Microclimate and habitat heterogeneity through the oil palm lifecycle

The rapid expansion of oil palm cultivation and corresponding deforestation has invoked widespread concern for biodiversity in Southeast Asia and throughout the tropics. However, no study explicitly addresses how habitat characteristics change when (1) forest is converted to oil palm, or (2) through the dynamic 25–30-year oil palm lifecycle. These two questions are fundamental to understanding how biodiversity will be impacted by oil palm development. Our results from a chronosequence study on microclimate and vegetation structure in oil palm plantations surrounding the Pasoh Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia, show dramatic habitat changes when forest is converted to oil palm. However, they also reveal substantial habitat heterogeneity throughout the plantation lifecycle. Oil palm plantations are created by clear-cutting forests and then terracing the land. This reduces the 25 m-tall forest canopy to bare ground with a harsh microclimate. Eight-year-old oil palm plantations had 4 m open-canopies; 22-year-old plantations had 13 m closed-canopies. Old plantations had significantly more buffered microclimates than young plantations. Understory vegetation was twice as tall in young plantations, but leaf litter depth and total epiphyte abundance were double in old plantations. Nonetheless, leaf litter coverage was patchy throughout the oil palm life cycle due to the stacking of all palm fronds. Overall, oil palm plantations were substantially hotter (+2.84 °C) and drier (+0.80 hPa vapor pressure deficit), than forests during diurnal hours. However, there were no nocturnal microclimate differences between forests and plantations. Finally, we describe how the variable retention of old palm trees during crop rotation can retain habitat features and maintain more stable microclimate conditions than clear-cutting senescent plantations. We discuss the implications of habitat changes for biodiversity and introduce three methods to utilize temporal habitat heterogeneity to enhance the quality of the oil palm landscape matrix.

The oil palm industry bows to NGO campaigns

AbstractPalm oil has become the key supplier to the global edible oils market. Continued oil palm development should be a good thing as it is the most effective supplier in terms of low land usage, and it brings much needed development to poor tropical developing regions. It provides livelihoods for an estimated 4.5 million people. As a monocrop that has supplanted forest and peat lands in areas with unmatched biodiversity and inhabited by poor indigenous tribes, it has been heavily criticized for its negative environmental and social impacts. Escalating NGO campaigns, particularly from Europe, over the last seven years have seriously reined in the speed and prospects for oil palm expansion in Indonesia and Malaysia. Large corporate growers have acceded to NGO pressures, as these have resulted in high‐key boycotts by the likes of Unilever and Nestle. Many large companies have signed on as members of the World Wildlife Fund for Nature‐initiated, Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil. Multi‐national consumer brands are being persuaded to change their buying policies, with potential global implications. Strategies to ignore or deny problems in oil palm sustainability have not worked well: a handful of NGOs have played David to the palm oil Goliaths of Indonesia and Malaysia. Since mid‐2010, Indonesia's President is trying to make less‐than‐popular policy changes, and the outcomes bear watching.

Development of Oil Palm on Peat: A Socio-economic Perspective

Shortage of good land resources has forced agricultural development, particularly oil palm cultivation into marginal soils and development of oil palm in particular on peat soil both in Malaysia and Indonesia. The interest of oil palm development on peat has triggered criticism on issues related to the environment and sustainability. Claims were made that oil palm development on peat is not sustainable due to the impact on the hydrological balance, emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) thereby contributing to global warming. On the other hand, the need to alleviate rural poverty and the economic viability of planting on very accessible peat remain a push factor in developing peat land into oil palm plantations. The paper discusses the current scenario of oil palm development on peat soil, challenges and the problems facing the industry from an environmental perspective. Implementation of current sustainable practices related to new development, water management and palm nutrition in line with the RSPO (Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil) principles and criteria are also considered. The paper addresses the prospects of oil palm cultivation on peat soil. Keywords: Peat soil development, socio economic considerations, environment, sustainable practices, RSPO principles and criteria, new development, water management, palm nutrition.

Why do Farmers Prefer Oil Palm? Lessons Learnt from Bungo District, Indonesia

Indonesia has been the world’s largest producer and exporter of palm oil since 2008. This paper discussed the livelihood impacts of oil palm development in Indonesia, based on lessons learnt from Bungo district, in the province of Jambi. The various community-company partnerships that structure the sector are reviewed and the difficulties raised by the joint ventures schemes are discussed. The merits and drawbacks of oil palm as a smallholder crop are then analysed, based on household socio-economic surveys conducted in 2007–2010. The main causes of conflicts between oil palm companies and communities are unclear land tenure, and a recurrent lack of leadership in smallholders’ cooperatives. Under fair partnerships between smallholders and companies, oil palm could become a smallholder friendly crop. The land-use profitability analysis demonstrates the high returns that can be generated by oil palm independent smallholdings, making it highly competitive with rubber, and much more profitable than rice production.

Indication of Soil Organic Carbon Augmentation in Oil Palm Cultivated Inland Mineral Soils of Peninsular Malaysia

Studies conducted on soil organic carbon (SOC) along with the annual soil fertility testing indicate that the carbon (C) stored or sequestrated in the soil was higher in the second and third cycles by 32 and 47 per cent, respectively than the first cycle of oil palm cultivation developed from the logged jungle of inland soils of Peninsular Malaysia. Although the SOC values of the top soil (0-15 cm) was higher than that of subsoil (15-45 cm), the largest build-up of SOC was observed at a depth of 15-45 cm in the second and third cycles of oil palm cultivation, indicating that the below-ground biomass of preceding planting contributes to a greater sequestration of carbon in the soil. Nevertheless, deviation from the mean SOC was broad which could be due to the temporal changes in the methods of planting and re-planting, palm age, field management practices of maintaining inter-row vegetation, pruning, placement and amount of fronds, disease control and placement of wastes from the oil mill. It appears that in the life cycle assessment of oil palm, where land uses and land use change ( LULUC) is considered, it may be essential to look into SOC as a part of the measuring tool of C stock prior to the development of oil palm and the increment of C stocks in each cycle of cultivation. Keywords: Soil organic carbon, soil carbon sequestration.

The Effect of Rock Phosphate on Soil Nutrient Dynamics, Growth, Development and Yield of Oil Palm in The Semi-Deciduous Forest Zone of Ghana

Field experiment was conducted at Oil Palm Research Institute, Kusi from 2002 to 2007 to as-sess the effect of Phosphate Rock (PR) on soil nutrient dynamics, growth, development and yield of oil palm. The study was carried out on the soils of Nzema series classified as Ferric Acrisols and Typic Hapludult. The oil palm trees selected were 8 year old tenera (DXP ex OPRI). Each plot measured 17.6 m x 17.6 m and had 6 palm trees. There were four treatments arranged in randomized complete block design with four replicates. The treatments included: 1). TSP - OPRI fertilizer recommendation - 222 kg of AS + 222 kg of TSP + 296 kg of MOP/ha/yr (control); 2). PR1 - PR 715 kg + 222 kg of AS + 296 kg of MOP/ha - Yr 1. PR 358 kg + 222 kg of AS + 296 kg of MOP/ ha – Yr 2. PR 358 kg + 222 kg of AS + 296 kg of MOP/ha – Yr 3; 3). PR2 - PR 1428 kg + 222 kg of AS + 296 kg of MOP/ha applied once in every 5 years; 4). PR3 - PR 142.85 kg/ha +222 kg AS/ ha + 296 kg of MOP/ha applied twice in every 5 years. Application of treatments influenced the soil chemical properties to a varying extent. Gradual increase in soil nutrient lev-els were more pronounced in RP treatments than Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) treatment (control). Soil pH increased from extremely acidic (3.73) to acidic (5.43) for treatment PR2. At the end of the study, available P recorded 9.55 mg/kg. The value is slightly below the medium range of available P for oil palm production. Significant increases were recorded by RP treat-ments for exchangeable Ca, Mg, K and ECEC. The results showed that treatment PR2 was effec-tive and gave the highest oil palm yield of 62.8t/ha with TSP recording 53.7t/ha. For sustained levels of soil nutrients, growth, development and yield of oil palm, PR incorporation should be encouraged.Keywords: Phosphate Rock, nutrient dynamics, oil palm, triple super phosphate

The livelihood impacts of oil palm: smallholders in Indonesia

The biodiversity and climate consequences of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) expansion across South East Asia have received considerable attention. The human side of the issue, highlighted with reports of negative livelihood outcomes and rights abuses by oil palm companies, has also led to controversy. Oil palm related conflicts have been widely documented in Indonesia yet uptake by farmers has also been extensive. An assessment of the livelihood impacts of oil palm development, including sources of conflict, is needed to shed light on the apparent contradiction between these reports and the evident enthusiasm of farmers to join the oil palm craze thereby informing future expansion. We assessed the impact of oil palm development on the economic wellbeing of rural farmers in Indonesia. We found that many smallholders have benefited substantially from the higher returns to land and labour afforded by oil palm but district authorities and smallholder cooperatives play key roles in the realisation of benefits. Conflicts between communities and companies have resulted almost entirely from lack of transparency, the absence of free, prior, and informed consent and unequal benefit sharing, and have been exacerbated by the absence of clear land rights. We make specific recommendations to improve the present situation and foster the establishment of smallholder friendly production regimes. Oil palm expansion in Indonesia is set to continue. If environmental standards can be raised and policy interventions targeted at the broader social impacts of land development this expansion may be achieved to the significant benefit of large numbers of rural smallholders.