Palestinian Water Authority Research Articles

Applying Public-Private Partnership in the Palestinian Water and Wastewater Large-Scale Projects

Background: The Palestinian water and wastewater sector is suffering from inadequate clean water and wastewater service provision. Public Private Partnership (PPP) may present a successful framework that can be utilized to improve the water and wastewater services in Palestine. The purpose of this research is to explore the attraction and success factors for applying the PPP model in the water and wastewater sector in Palestine and to explore the obstacles that may hinder its application. Moreover, this study aims to determine the main characteristics of the environment that would enable an effective implementation of the PPP model in the mentioned sector in Palestine. Method: A questionnaire survey was utilized to collect the facts, perceptive, and attitudes of the respondents who were qualified experts with more than 15 years of experience in the field of water and wastewater projects in Gaza and the West Bank and having PPP knowledge and understanding. Results: This study has determined the attraction and success factors for applying a PPP model in the water and wastewater sector in Palestine and the obstacles that may constrain its application. Additionally, this study has determined the main features of the enabling environment that would support the success of the PPP model application in the mentioned sector. Conclusion: Based on the findings of this study, it is concluded that the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) is not yet ready to implement largescale PPP projects. Thus, it is recommended that the PWA should take action, based on the findings of this study, to bridge the existing gaps for enabling a successful PPP in the water and wastewater sector in Palestine.

The Role of International Funds in Fulfill the Palestinian Water Authority Strategic Plan 2015-2017

The International Funds are a double edge sword and it has played a vital role in promoting the water industry and its strategic objectives. This study is directed towards assessing the role of the international funds in fulfilling the Palestinian Water Authority’s Strategic plan (2015-2017). In fact, to achieve this goal using data collection approaches through a quantitative survey and the qualitative approach. The data of the survey are analyzed using (SPSS 20) in terms of descriptive statistics followed by inferential statistics. Our study aims at the administrative staff of municipalities and joint service councils in the West Bank, primarily from municipal cities of Jenin and Tubas. About 30 of the joint service council’s administration employees completed the questionnaire that was distributed. The survey filled with 96.7% males and 3.3% female, 60 % were from municipalities and 40% from joint service councils. Moreover, for the qualitative data the researcher used identification, examination, and interpretation of paradigms in textual data, reports and M&E documents of the Palestine water authority projects that were funded through the period 1997- 2017. The data showed that the total funds for the Palestinian water authority from 1997 to 2017 have reached (129, 1750 Million $). From those funds, the French agency has the highest contribution of funding the PWA programs by (256, 6908 Million $). The data also showed that the sanitation sector got the highest percentage from funds with 62%. The analysis also showed that there is a link between the international funds and the PWA strategic goals; it creates its strategic plan based on the Palestinian society’s needs and the international funds supporting these needs. The research concludes the following results; the international fund’s policy dimension statistically contributes significantly to the model and has an impact on fulfilling the PWA strategic plan, also the analysis showed that fulfilling the PWA strategic plan by evolution dimension statistically contributes significantly to the model and effect on the international funds. Moreover, the result showed that there is a communication gap between PWA management and the utilities in its supporting so there is a lack of awareness from the target group for the role and policy of the PWA. Additionally, the lack of effort to establish external technical control and institutional participation, which is considered as an important process in the implementation of the strategic plan.

Waste Siege: The Life of Infrastructure in Palestine by Sophia Stamatopoulou-Robbins

Reviewed by: Waste Siege: The Life of Infrastructure in Palestine by Sophia Stamatopoulou-Robbins Marisa Solomon Sophia Stamatopoulou-Robbins. Waste Siege: The Life of Infrastructure in Palestine. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2019. 344 pp. The environment is an incoherent imaginary. Highly racialized in its moralistic deployment of good and bad (McKee 2015), clean and dirty (Butt 2020, Resnick 2021), worth preserving or wasted (West 2006, Wolfe 2006), its terms produce colonial schemas and maps that demarcate who is and isn't deserving of global aid. Improbably suggesting shared culpability for the asymmetric effects of late capitalism's ongoing destruction (Fortun 2001), colonial environmental imaginaries create geographies of charity in the wake of producing what Katherine McKittrick (2013) and others have called uninhabitable geographies. Yet, the incoherence of "the environment" is a resource for racial capitalism, particularly when settler colonial markers of progress require that some people, land, and communities remain stuck in the past in order to facilitate the "modern" march forward (Solomon 2019). Sophia Stamatopoulou-Robbins's Waste Siege: The Life of Infrastructure in Palestine works within the incoherence of environmental imaginaries, revealing how their dissonance produces meaning, time, and place in Palestine. Subtended by the toxic materialities of what Rob Nixon (2011) has called environmental slow violence, Stamatopoulou-Robbins's ethnography of infrastructure offers a different analytic to describe the siege on Palestinian lives: a waste siege. This ethnography asks the reader to see the "disorienting patchwork of military installations" (19) as well as unpredictable yet inevitable encounters with the state (i.e., Israel) and something "state-like" (i.e., the Palestinian Authority) as critical to how waste moves in and through Palestine. From Palestinian domestic waste practices and experiences with disposable [End Page 493] commodities to calculations of risk and time in Authority-managed landfills to the "doublethink" required for Palestinian Water Authority officials to seek foreign or Israeli aid, this book argues that governing waste in Palestine is as much a question of sovereignty as it is a problem of toxic besiegement. While waste accumulation is an intractable problem of a larger global capitalist order, Waste Siege asks us to think about the management of meaning and matter living under siege. Working in tension with and against the analytic impulse to see waste as an empirically obvious, lively, or, even, agentive object, Stamatopoulou-Robbins asks us to think through the terms under which waste becomes (or, arguably, already always is) a condition of—and simultaneously exceeds—colonial power. In Palestine, the author argues, waste is not only something in need of infrastructural management; it is itself infrastructural, producing new conditions of management, including managing occupation. The language of "siege" often describes a military strategy that "encircles from without." But by seeing waste itself as infrastructural and a siege in its own right, the concept includes that which emits from within: "Waste siege is constituted as much by movement and flow of waste as it is by encirclement…People cannot escape even if they leave the place where the waste first found them" (7). Siege, then, describes the conditions of living with, alongside, or in proximity to an intractable problem that, according to Stamatopoulou-Robbins, "makes accountability [for waste] more opaque" (8). As the chapter titles and organization of the book suggest, siege has many features: compression, inundated, accumulation, gifted, leakage. These terms not only characterize various types of sovereign force but also elements of siege or modes through which we might think through waste siege as part of everyday life under Israeli occupation. Within settler colonial regimes, waste is a vexed resource. As many recent scholars have pointed out, waste accumulations are unevenly distributed (Liboiron 2021, Pulido 2006). The lack of state capacity to manage waste—whether infrastructural, financial, managerial, or otherwise—is seen as a failure to be modern, if not a failure of the non-sovereign peoples themselves to care for "their environment." As described in Chapter 1 ("Compression") and Chapter 5 ("Leakage"), environmental actors—whether that be Authority waste and water officials or Israeli environmentalists who see themselves as working towards collaborative [End Page 494] peace efforts—negotiate how Palestine's waste is a continued source of foreign investment. As Stamatopoulou-Robbins describes...

How a water trucking governance mechanism in the West Bank enhances equity and sustainability

In the Oslo Accord-defined Area C of the West Bank, approximately 11,000 Palestinians are unserved by the water network, forced to rely on water trucking at extremely high prices. In response to this situation, Gruppo di Volontariato Civile (GVC), in partnership with UNICEF, created a programme to subsidize water trucking that alleviates water scarcity while enhancing the sustainability of water service delivery, equitability of tariffs, and predictability of demand. Established in 2014, the programme now covers all the water-vulnerable communities in the West Bank and has reached 35,000 people. The programme links humanitarian and development interventions by using a contiguum approach, where the humanitarian provision of trucked water is accompanied by the construction of water infrastructure and the creation of a multilevel water trucking governance system that defines the roles and responsibilities of all national, regional, and local actors in the water supply chain. By embedding water trucking into the Palestinian Water Authority’s normal activities, the programme is designed to escape a cycle of chronic emergency humanitarian response, in line with the national water sector reform agenda. Eventually, the international donor funding on which the programme depends should be phased out by implementing an equitable, universal water tariff schedule across the entire West Bank, with rates set high enough to subsidize the provision of reliable, safe, and affordable water to the vulnerable residents of Area C.

Geo-spatial Assessment of Flood Vulnerability Areas of the Gaza Strip Towards Preparedness and Humanitarian Response Planning

Nowadays, flood and drought will become more common as climate change causes. Due to climate change consequences, flood occurrence and its impact on Gaza people have been of great concern to the Palestinian water authority, as it has a negative influence on various humanitarian and social issues. The hazards and damages resulted by flooding cause loss of life, property, displacement of people and disruption of socioeconomic activities. This research focuses on assessing Gaza Strip vulnerability to flooding using analysis of GIS-based spatial information. Not only did it consider the physical-environmental flood vulnerability, it also investigated social flood vulnerability aspects e.g., population densities. Soil and slope were considered to have the highest weight in the vulnerability mapping, as they represent the main factors in urban hydro-ecosystem structure. The long term average rainfall, a climate function factor, has the lowest weight, because it could be considered as a threat factor in addition to a vulnerability factor. This research demonstrates that urban area and population density as strong factors influencing flood vulnerability for humanitarian and saving life purposes. The findings of Geospatial analysis were used to map vulnerable areas likely to be affected in the event of flood hazard and suggest future interventions and related adaptation strategies in Gaza areas for flood mitigation.

The Effect of Implementing the Integrated Management System in Desalination Plants in Conflict Zones: Case Study on the Gaza Strip

Water scarcity is a global issue that has extreme effects on conflict zones in particular. Therefore, seawater desalination provided a practical solution to reduce the problem. The Gaza Strip suffers from potable water scarcity due to groundwater contamination and the deterioration of the coastal aquifers. Thereby, the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) had constructed three seawater desalination plants (SDP’s) in addition to purchasing potable water from the Israeli company (Mekorot). Due to the importance of the SDP’s, a flexible and comprehensive management system is required to ensure the sustainability of the performance. Thereby, this study aims to assess the potentiality of applying the Integrated Management System (IMS) in seawater desalination plants. This study used data collected from reports, questionnaires, and interviews, which is then analysed statistically, in order to identify the effects and barriers of applying the IMS in seawater desalination plants. The data also was used in SWOT analysis to formulate strategies for applying the IMS. The reports showed that the physicochemical water quality of samples from seawater desalination plants is compatible with PWA and WHO standards. The results from the questionnaire showed that there are positive impacts of applying the IMS on the performance of the desalination plants in terms of the financial, administrative, technical, environmental, and socio-economic aspects. However, the study identified 12 barriers which were analysed through SWOT analysis to formulate strategies to facilitate the implementation of the IMS. The highest priority and most applicable strategy is the formation of a partnership with the UN institutions to obtain international protection and facilitate the entry of the required materials.

GIS-Based Spatiotemporal Mapping of Groundwater Potability and Palatability Indices in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

This paper aims to assess groundwater potability and palatability in the West Bank, Palestine. It combines the adjusted weighted arithmetic water quality index method (AWAWQIM), a close-ended questionnaire, and step-wise assessment ratio analysis (SWARA) to develop groundwater potability (PoGWQI) and palatability (PaGWQI) indices. Both a geographic information system (GIS) and the kriging interpolation method (KIM) are employed to create spatiotemporal mapping of PoGWQI and PaGWQI. The research is based on data from 79 wells, which were provided by the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA). Data include fecal coliform (FC), nitrate (NO3), pH, chloride (Cl), sulfate (SO4), bicarbonate (HCO3), total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, and hardness. Results indicate that 2% and 5% of water samples were unpotable and unpalatable, respectively. Unpotable samples were found in areas with poor sewer networks and intensive use of agrochemicals. All groundwater samples (100%) in the eastern part of the West Bank were unpalatable because of seawater intrusion. Unconfined aquifers were more vulnerable to potability and palatability contamination. It was noticed that PoGWQI is sensitive to FC and NO3, while PaGWQI is sensitive to HCO3, TDS, and Cl. Consequently, these quality parameters should be monitored well. The proposed method is of great interest to water decision-makers in Palestine for establishing strategies to protect water resources.

Medium-term forecasts for salinity rates and groundwater levels

An increase in demand for groundwater associated with uncontrolled consumption has led to the depletion of groundwater wells. As a result, the mixing of seawater with groundwater increases the salinity rates, especially in areas where wells are close to the Mediterranean Sea in Gaza. In this paper, we use time-series data mining techniques to forecast the salinity rates and levels of groundwater in Deir El-Balah city—Gaza Strip. For this purpose, five forecasting techniques were applied on two data sets gained from the Palestinian Water Authority of Deir El-Balah City: salinity rates and groundwater levels (GL). The used forecasting algorithms are: exponential smoothing (ETS), state space model with Box–Cox transformation, ARMA errors, trend and seasonal components (TBATS), auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA), ARIMA combined with: neural network (NN), ETS, and TBATS model. The best performance of the applied algorithms of salinity data according to Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) measure on the well S-69 was: ARIMA (MAPE = 4.2%), and (ARIMA + TBATS) for K-21 and K-20 which gave the MAPE = 5.4% and 4.0%, respectively. On the other hand, ARIMA was the most convenient algorithm to forecast the salinity rates of GL for S-50 (MAPE = 2.5) and ARIMA + NN (MAPE = 2.1) for J-103. The results demonstrated that in the period (2018–2023), the salinity rates will increase for S-69, K-20, and K-21 in comparison with the period (2012–2017) by 7.1%, 69.6%, and 55.7%, respectively. While the water levels of the wells: S-50 and J-103 will be lower than the sea water level in the period (2018–2023) by 1.89% and 6.37% in comparison with the period (2012–2017).

Domestic Groundwater Quality in the Northern Governorates of the West Bank, Palestine.

Like several parts in the Middle East, the West Bank is in a significant water scarcity status. Palestinians use groundwater as the main water source, supplying more than 90% of the consumed water in the West Bank. The aim of this study is to enhance the knowledge on drinking water quality in the West Bank. Groundwater quality data was obtained from the Palestinian Water Authority, including the years 2015 and 2016, from the Northern six districts of the West Bank. The water quality data were analyzed and matched with the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines and the Palestinian standards for drinking water quality. The findings of this study revealed that groundwater in the north of the West Bank comply with several drinking water requirements including total hardness, pH, and sodium and chloride content. Conversely, 18% of the samples exceed the limits for nitrate concentration. The fecal Coliforms and total Coliforms results show that 98.7% of the samples give no risk, but 1.3% of the samples give low risk, and no sample gives intermediate-to-high risks. The microbial and chemical pollution of groundwater is postulated to inadequate wastewater management, high use of fertilizers, and uncontrolled disposal of animal manure. Therefore, it is crucial to disinfect drinking water at the source of production before supply as an immediate action, followed by implementing pollution prevention measures.

Health Risk Assessment of Groundwater Contamination Case Study: Gaza Strip

Gaza Governorates are suffering from shortage problems and poor quality of groundwater that is being pumped from 281 municipal wells. According to the latest data available at the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA), the water consumption can be distributed on municipal consumption 96.428 MCM and agricultural sector consumption 95.3 MCM. The annual recharge is less than the pumping rate with more than 90 MCM; resulting in declining water level, sea water intrusion and hence high chloride concentrations. Nitrate levels are increasing due to the improper systems of wastewater disposal, excess use of fertilizers and landfill leachate. The nitrate level exceeds the WHO limit in more than 90.6 % of Gaza Governorates municipal wells for the year 2018 (223 wells from a total of 245 wells. Due to the health impacts of nitrate, health risk assessment was conducted based upon the available quality data of 245 municipal wells. The risk assessment method adopted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency was utilized in this study. Three categories of receptors were assessed; infants, children and adults. The study revealed that the health risk values for adults is acceptable in 22 wells only while it is unacceptable in the other 223 wells. For children and small infants, the situation was riskier and the study outlined that none of the municipal wells in Gaza Governorates was suitable for drinking purposes for these two categories of people. The study recommended that actions should be taken to minimize the risk associated with drinking groundwater, looking for alternative water resources is to be seriously considered, community participation should be encouraged, people should know that their source of water is unsuitable and further studies that consider the impact of nitrate in groundwater on the public health in Gaza Strip should be performed.

Quality of Drinking Water from Springs in Palestine: West Bank as a Case Study.

The shortage of fresh water creates acute challenges in the West Bank of Palestine. Springs provide a main water resource in the West Bank. Investigating springs' water quality is essential step for promoting their public use. The aim of this research is to assess the microbiological and physiochemical quality parameters of drinking water from springs. The study methodology included sampling through field work and laboratory testing for water quality parameters using standard procedures. The study area covered all locations containing licensed springs by the Palestinian Water Authority in the West Bank of Palestine. The number of collected samples was 127 covering 300 springs. The chemical, physical, and biological parameters for each sample were measured. Then, the obtained characteristics were evaluated based on national and international quality standards (PSI and WHO). The investigated parameters included temperature, pH, EC, total hardness, concentrations of nitrate, sodium ions, total chlorine, residual chlorine, turbidity, and total and faecal coliforms. Most of investigated physical and chemical parameters were within the acceptable standard limits. However, the turbidity and chloride and nitrate concentrations exceeded standard limits. The findings indicate that only a minor fraction of the samples (2%) requires chlorination treatment, while most of the springs (97% of samples) are classified as possessing no risk.

Evaluation of the effect of water management interventions on water level of Gaza coastal aquifer

Gaza coastal aquifer (GCA) is the most precious natural source where it is the only source of water for different uses. Groundwater crisis in Gaza includes two major folds: shortage of water supply and contamination. The extraction of groundwater currently exceeds the aquifer recharge rate. As a result, the groundwater level is falling continuously leading severely deterioration of GCA. The main objective of this study is to analyze and evaluate the current and proposed water resources management plans and their effect on the water level of GCA. In this respect, the available quantities of rainfall that could be harvested and infiltrated from different types of land-use based on existing and planned situations are studied using GIS tool and numerical models for GCA using V-MODFLOW environment for simulating four scenarios: (i) existing management practice (no action scenario), (ii) proposed Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) stormwater infiltration plan, (iii) proposed Gaza Emergency Technical Assistance Program (GETAP) interventions, and (iv) combination between second and third scenarios. The management scenarios were tested with the calibrated flow model for the target period between 2016 and 2040. The simulation results of existing management practice scenario show that there are several depression zones in Gaza Strip; in southern part from − 18 to − 24 m MSL in 2020 and 2040, in the northern part from − 7 to − 12 m MSL in 2020 and 2040, and in the middle regions experienced a small decline in groundwater level. The simulation results of proposed PWA scenario indicate similar depression zones as per first scenario but with good enhancement of water level, − 17 to − 18 m MSL in the southern part and − 3 to − 6 m MSL in the northern part in 2020 and 2040, respectively. The simulation results of GETAP intervention scenario show a positive impact on groundwater level. The results of fourth scenario show good enhancement of water level, in which the water level in the northern part ranges from + 3 to + 6 m MSL in 2020 and 2040, while in the south part ranges from − 15 to + 4 MSL in 2020 and 2040.

The Determinants of Non-Revenue Water & Financial Viability for the Palestinian Water Service Providers

Imagine that your water service provider gives your family at the end of the year $70 as a result of non-revenue water. Indeed, it is the value of Palestinian non-revenue water for year 2015; where, it was equivalent to a deposit $13 for each individual person. Due to its importance, this paper empirically evaluates the determinants of non-revenue water for the providers that deliver water services to 72% of Palestinian population. Two multiple regressions have been conducted; the first one measuring the non-revenue water. The findings of this measurement show that staff productivity, daily consumption, average price, energy cost, service providers’ size and structure, have significant impact on the non-revenue water; wherein, the water production variable impact is not significant. However, those predictors have been included into another regression to explain the financial viability of the Palestinian Water Service Providers. The results indicate that staff productivity, daily consumption, average price, energy cost, and water production have significant effect on the financial viability. Only service providers’ size and structure, have insignificant effect. In Palestine, the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) is the policy maker. The results of this research implicate that PWA may put targets for Palestinian Service Providers at national level; such as non-revenue water, staff productivity, profitability, and water production. Therefore, this will lead to increase the performance of the water providers in non-revenue water and overall enhance their financial viability.

The value of water: Optimizing models for sustainable management, infrastructure planning, and conflict resolution

For any country with a seacoast, the possibility of seawater desalination puts a ceiling on the value of water. And that ceiling can be surprisingly low — so low that, with rational thinking, the assertion that the next war will be about water is the repetition of a myth. But the important lesson here is not that desalination is an answer to water disputes, it is that water is not beyond price and that thinking about water in terms of its value rather than in terms of quantities and ownership leads to powerful results. Together with colleagues, we have developed models on that basis: the first, called “WAS” for “Water Allocation System” was developed in the late 1990s for Israel, Jordan, and Palestine; the improved version, “MYWAS”, for “Multi-Year Water Allocation System” is now in development and use by the Palestinian Water Authority. In both versions, water is treated as a special commodity with the user enabled to impose constraints reflecting social values that are not private ones. MYWAS takes a list of possible infrastructure projects and returns advice on which ones should be built, at what time, in what order, and to what capacity. It also can be used to guide aquifer management and to study the effects of climatic uncertainty and climate change. Beyond this, the models lead to a plan for cooperation in water — a plan in which all parties benefit, buying and selling short-term permits to use each others’ water. Water disputes thus become win-win situations rather than zero-sum games. Further, while use of this system does not affect any party’s ability to assert claims to water rights and water ownership, we show that participation need not wait for such claims to be settled. Water is a soluble problem. We illustrate results for Israel, Jordan, and Palestine.

Water allocation, climate change, and sustainable water use in Israel/Palestine: the Palestinian position

This study examines impacts of population growth and climate change on water supplies of Israelis and Palestinians under business-as-usual conditions and application of the Palestinian Water Authority position on water resources division. Eight scenarios are developed that describe conditions in 2000 and 2025. Several indicators are used to measure the effects of these conditions. The indicators show that population growth and climate change will create international inequities and environmental inadequacies under business-as-usual conditions. Although conditions are more equitable and sustainable with application of the Palestinian position, serious environmental problems will persist – likely exacerbated by the potential impacts of climate change.

Customers’ satisfaction with water supply service in the Gaza Strip

Water scarcity in the Gaza Strip forms a real crisis for people in this area. The ground water is the main resource for domestic use in the Gaza Strip. This resource suffers from rapid decline in both quality and quantity. This paper aims at investigating the customers’ attitude regarding their satisfaction with water supply service in the Gaza trip. Seven hundred and sixty questionnaires were distributed among the subscripted households in the governorates of the Gaza Strip and 609 of them were used in data. The results of this study indicate that most of the respondents were not satisfied with water supply service concerning water quality, quantity, and continuity. It is recommended that an improvement of quality and quantity of the water supply service in the Gaza Strip should be carried out by the Palestinian Water Authority in cooperation with the municipalities.

Regulatory challenges of Palestinian strategies on distribution of desalinated water

The Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) as a regulator for the water sector in Gaza and the West Bank had initiated a strategy to build small-scale RO seawater desalination plants (600-1250 m3/d) using the donor community funds as a supporting source of potable water to be operated and managed by the private sector. It had been planned to distribute that water through water shops, tankers or direct connections to bulk users. In parallel a number of small scale private brackish water desalination plants along with a number of desalinated water vendors have been licensed to produce and distribute desalinated water usually by tankers and small reservoirs located at shops or streets. Different power costs, tariff and water quality between RO seawater and RO brackish water desalination plants is resulting in high competition in the local market. The competition is leading the seawater desalination plant operator to reduce operational hours, which in turns result into higher specific operational costs per cubic meter of water produced. The licensing procedures for brackish water RO plants neither clearly take in consideration product details of water quality nor the follow up and monitoring. This paper presents the regulatory actions and a monitoring plan to be taken by the Palestinian Water Authority on the strategy of licensing and operation of small-scale desalination plants for the benefit of consumers and operators.

Regulatory challenges of Palestinian strategies on distribution of desalinated water

The Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) as a regulator for the water sector in Gaza and the West Bank had initiated a strategy to build small-scale RO seawater desalination plants (600-1250 m3/d) using the donor community funds as a supporting source of potable water to be operated and managed by the private sector. It had been planned to distribute that water through water shops, tankers or direct connections to bulk users. In parallel a number of small scale private brackish water desalination plants along with a number of desalinated water vendors have been licensed to produce and distribute desalinated water usually by tankers and small reservoirs located at shops or streets. Different power costs, tariff and water quality between RO seawater and RO brackish water desalination plants is resulting in high competition in the local market. The competition is leading the seawater desalination plant operator to reduce operational hours, which in turns result into higher specific operational costs per cubic meter of water produced. The licensing procedures for brackish water RO plants neither clearly take in consideration product details of water quality nor the follow up and monitoring. This paper presents the regulatory actions and a monitoring plan to be taken by the Palestinian Water Authority on the strategy of licensing and operation of small-scale desalination plants for the benefit of consumers and operators.

Privatization of Sanitation and Desalination Projects in Palestine

The present problems that are related to water and sanitation in Palestine are many and varied, and the disparity between water supply and demand is growing with time due to the rapid population growth and aridity. Desalination has the potential to supply unlimited quantities of high-quality freshwater to Palestinian Communities. On the other hand, the situation of the sewerage system in the cities is extremely critical, and there are no sewerage systems in the rural areas. There is an urgent need for substantial improvements and extensions to the sewerage systems and treatment plants. The available funds for the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) and other municipalities to implement wastewater and desalination projects are limited. As a result, it is important to fully explore the use of public-private partnerships that utilize sector resources to finance such projects. The objective of this study is to understand incentives for privatization of water supply and sanitation services, with more emphasis on the households' Affordability and Willingness-to-Pay (AWTP) for improved water and sanitation services. The results show that people in Palestine bear the burden of high water supply and sanitation costs. Privatization of the water and sanitation sector will guarantee sustainable development of these sectors under limited financial resources and dependency on external funds.

Existing and the future planned desalination facilities in the Gaza Strip of Palestine and their socio-economic and environmental impact

One of the major options for the remedy of water shortages in the Gaza Strip of Palestine, and the protection of its coastal aquifer from either depletion and/or becoming saline, is the utilization of desalination technology for brackish and seawater in that region. Other effective options for water supply may become feasible after a comprehensive peace prevails in the region. As a means of an immediate remedy to fresh water shortages in cities in central and southern Gaza and water conflict resolution, the donor countries have funded 3 relatively small brackish water reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plants, each of which produces between 45 and 75 m 3/h. Two private Palestinian water investing companies also established two similar RO plants. Several other much larger seawater RO desalination plants are planned to cover the overall shortages in the whole Gaza Strip and allow time to restore and rejuvenate the polluted and saline Gaza aquifer. The Gaza Strip with its low rainfall and sandy soils depends greatly on its intensive agriculture production on irrigation resulting in an over utilization of the underground water resources. The high water withdrawal through about 4000, mostly unregulated, private farm wells with a capacity of 20–80m 3/h and 95 municipality wells of 60–100 m 3/h, and lack of sufficient natural recharge is causing a deterioration of the valuable coastal aquifer system in the Gaza Strip. Discussion will entail the USAID many faceted assistance programs to rehabilitate the Gaza aquifers and investigate the options for alleviating the water shortages in the Gaza Strip. USAID allocated and began collaboration with the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) on a USA grant of US$10M yearly, over 5 years, which is currently being implemented through the USA consulting firm of Metcalf and Eddy. Currently, desalination by RO of the abundant supplies of brackish water around the cities in central and southern Gaza, which may be appealing as an emergency alternative water source, is causing through the brine disposal, long range environmental problems, and through intensive underground water withdrawals, a lowering of the water table and encroachment of seawater and other brackish water intrusion into the fresh water aquifer. Furthermore, the brine disposal from the private desalination plants and the small private RO water vendors are a menacing and uncontrolled environmental problem in the Gaza Strip.