Paleomagnetic Directional Data Research Articles

New volcanological, 40Ar/39Ar dating and paleomagnetic record from Trindade Island and stratigraphic implications

Unrevealing the stratigraphy of volcanic systems is fundamental to understanding their eruptive history and requires a multiproxy approach for the accurate correlation and interpretation of deposits. We present new volcanological, 40Ar/39Ar ages and paleomagnetic data from the volcanic rocks of Trindade Island, located at ∼1.260 km from the Brazilian coast in the South Atlantic Ocean. The reconstruction of the volcanic history of Trindade Island is important because it is the youngest volcanic terrain in Brazil and part of a submarine chain that represents the most recent plume-induced alkaline manifestation beneath the South American plate. Our results suggest Trindade Island underwent two main phases of volcanism. The first phase (3.9–1.5 Ma) formed the Trindade Complex and Desejado Formation, with eruptive styles ranging from phreatomagmatic/Surtseyan to Vulcanian and of dominant phonolitic composition. The second phase (1.0–0.06 Ma) formed the nephelinitic monogenetic centers Morro Vermelho, Valado and Paredão Volcano Formations through dominant Hawaiian and Strombolian styles. The new ages imply a revised stratigraphy for the youngest units of Trindade Island, with partial overlap between them. The revised chronology integrated to the paleomagnetic directional data evidence that Trindade Complex formed during Gauss normal chron (D = 355.4°; I = −49.6°), Valado and Paredão Volcano during Brunhes normal chron (D = 14°; I = −42.3° and D = 9.2°; I = −35.2°, respectively), while Morro Vermelho records the late Matuyama-early Brunhes chron (D = 36.5°; I = −19.8°), with site-level mean paleodirections of normal and transitional polarity within the reverse Matuyama interval.

Uncertainty Propagation in Hierarchical Paleomagnetic Reconstructions

AbstractEstimation of paleomagnetic directions plays a crucial role in magnetostratigaphy, paleogeographic reconstruction, and constraining past geomagnetic field behavior. While analysis and aggregation of paleomagnetic directional data are performed in a hierarchical fashion, the standard statistical framework employed by paleomagnetists does not consider uncertainty propagation through each level of the hierarchy. With this limitation, inferences drawn from paleomagnetic data will be affected by underestimated uncertainties. We provide here an approximate directional uncertainty propagation scheme that applies to Fisher distributions and, thus, to a number of paleomagnetic data processing tasks. The scheme is a straightforward addition to the existing paleomagnetic statistical framework and is demonstrated using case studies to show how uncertainties can be propagated through different stages of the paleomagnetic data processing chain. Furthermore, we discuss situations, such as the transformation into virtual geomagnetic poles, where this simple form of uncertainty propagation cannot be employed because the data are not Fisher distributed.

Scaled von Mises–Fisher Distributions and Regression Models for Paleomagnetic Directional Data

We propose a new distribution for analyzing paleomagnetic directional data, that is, a novel transformation of the von Mises–Fisher distribution. The new distribution has ellipse-like symmetry, as does the Kent distribution; however, unlike the Kent distribution the normalizing constant in the new density is easy to compute and estimation of the shape parameters is straightforward. To accommodate outliers, the model also incorporates an additional shape parameter, which controls the tail-weight of the distribution. We also develop a general regression model framework that allows both the mean direction and the shape parameters of the error distribution to depend on covariates. The proposed regression procedure is shown to be equivariant with respect to the choice of coordinate system for the directional response. To illustrate, we analyses paleomagnetic directional data from the GEOMAGIA50.v3 database. We predict the mean direction at various geological time points and show that there is significant heteroscedasticity present. It is envisaged that the regression structures and error distribution proposed here will also prove useful when covariate information is available with (i) other types of directional response data; and (ii) square-root transformed compositional data of general dimension. Supplementary materials for this article are available online. Code submitted with this article was checked by an Associate Editor for Reproducibility and is available as an online supplement.

Paleosecular variation recorded by Quaternary lava flows from Guadeloupe Island

Paleomagnetic directional data were obtained from fourteen 0 to 2 Ma old lava flows at Basse-Terre Island (Guadeloupe, French West Indies). Five reversed polarity flows are consistent with their Matuyama age between 1.6–1.5 Ma and 875–790 ka while the ages of the other nine normal polarity units tie them to the Olduvai subchron and the Brunhes Chron. These directions have been combined with previous results obtained from Basse-Terre Island. The overall mean direction (D = −1.2°, I = 31.4°, α95 = 3.3°) obtained from the 39 non-transitional flows from Basse-Terre Island is indistinguishable from the expected geocentric axial dipole value (D = 0°, I = 29.8°). The dispersion measured from the angular standard deviation of the Virtual Geomagnetic Poles (VGPs) was found to be close to, but smaller than the predictions of geomagnetic models. Together with further directions from the nearby Martinique Island, the 45 directions obtained within the Brunhes chron provide the most robust estimate of the statistical distribution of paleosecular variation (PSV) at this latitude. The sequence of directions shows episodes of high amplitude secular variation that are coeval with several geomagnetic events including the last reversal documented by five transitional directions. Finally, three lava flows have recorded a transitional behavior which could be link to two excursions, the Laguna del Sello (at ~340 ka) and the Pringle Falls (at ~210 ka) events.

A 10,000 yr record of high-resolution Paleosecular Variation from a flowstone of Rio Martino Cave, Northwestern Alps, Italy

Speleothems are potentially excellent archives of the Earth's magnetic field, capable of recording its past variations. Their characteristics, such as the continuity of the record, the possibility to be easily dated, the almost instantaneous remanence acquisition and the high time-resolution make them potentially unique high-quality Paleosecular Variation (PSV) recorders. Nevertheless, speleothems are commonly characterized by low magnetic intensities, which often limits their resolution. Here we present a paleomagnetic study performed on two cores from a flowstone from the Rio Martino Cave (Western Alps, Italy). U/Th dating indicates that the flowstone's deposition covers almost the entire Holocene, spanning the period ca. 0.5–9.0 ka, while an estimation of its mean growth rate is around 1 mm per 15 years. The flowstone is composed of columnar calcite, characterized by a highly magnetic detrital content from meta-ophiolites in the cave's catchment. This favorable geological context results in an intense magnetic signal that permits the preparation and measurement of thin (∼3 mm depth equivalent) samples, each representing around 45 yr. The Characteristic Remanent Magnetization (ChRM), isolated after systematic stepwise Alternating Field demagnetization, is well defined, with Maximum Angular Deviation (MAD) generally lower than 10°. Paleomagnetic directional data allow the reconstruction of the PSV path during the Holocene for the area. Comparison of the new data with archeomagnetic data from Italian archeological and volcanic records and using the predictions of the SHA.DIF.14k and pfm9k.1a global geomagnetic field models shows that the Rio Martino flowstone represents an excellent recorder of the Earth's magnetic field during the last 9,000 years. Our high resolution paleomagnetic record, anchored by a high-quality chronology, provides promising data both for the detection of short term geomagnetic field variations and for complementing existing regional PSV curves for the prehistoric period, for which well-dated data are still scarce.

Large geomagnetic field anomalies revealed in Bronze to Iron Age archeomagnetic data from Tel Megiddo and Tel Hazor, Israel

Abstract Geomagnetic field measurements from the past few centuries show heightened secular variation activity in the southern hemisphere associated with the south Atlantic anomaly (SAA). It is uncertain whether geomagnetic anomalies at a similar scale have existed in the past owing to limited coverage and uncertainties in the paleomagnetic database. Here we provide new evidence from archaeological sources in the Levant suggesting a large positive northern hemisphere anomaly, similar in magnitude to the SAA during the 9th–8th centuries BCE, called “Levantine Iron Age anomaly”. We also report an additional geomagnetic spike in the 8th century. The new dataset comprises 73 high precision paleointensity estimates from ca. 3000 BCE to 732 BCE, and five directional measurements between the 14th and the 9th centuries BCE. Well-dated pottery and cooking ovens were collected from twenty archaeological strata in two large contemporaneous stratigraphical mounds (tells) in Israel: Tel Megiddo and Tel Hazor. The new data are combined with previously published data and interpreted automatically using the PmagPy Thellier GUI program. The Tel Megiddo and Tel Hazor data sets demonstrate excellent internal consistency and remarkable agreement with published data from Mesopotamia (Syria). The data illustrate the evolution of an extreme geomagnetic high that culminated in at least two spikes between the 11th and the 8th centuries BCE (Iron Age in the Levant). The paleomagnetic directional data of the 9th century BCE show positive inclination anomalies, and deviations of up to 22° from the averaged geocentric axial dipole (GAD) direction. From comparison of the Levantine archaeomagnetic data with IGRF model for 2015 we infer the “Levantine Iron Age anomaly” between the 10th and the 8th centuries BCE is a local positive anomaly. The eastward extent of the anomaly is currently unknown.

Paleomagnetism of early cretaceous arapey formation (Northern Uruguay)

We report detailed rock-magnetic and paleomagnetic directional data from 35 lava flows (302 standard paleomagnetic cores) sampled in the Central-Northern region of Uruguay in order to contribute to the study of the paleosecular variation of the Earth’s magnetic field during early Cretaceous and to obtain precise Cretaceous paleomagnetic pole positions for stable South America. The average unit direction is rather precisely determined from 29 out of 35 sites. All A95 confidence angles are less than 8°, which points to small within-site dispersion and high directional stability. Normal polarity magnetizations are revealed for 19 sites and 10 are reversely magnetized. Two other sites yield well defined intermediate polarities. The mean direction, supported by a positive reversal test is in reasonably good agreement with the expected paleodirection for Early Cretaceous stable South America and in disagreement with a 10° clockwise rotation found in the previous studies. On the other hand, paleomagnetic poles are significantly different from the pole position suggested by hotspot reconstructions, which may be due to true polar wander or the hotspot motion. Our data suggest a different style of secular variation during (and just before) the Cretaceous Normal Superchron and the last 5 Ma, supporting a link between paleosecular variation and reversal frequency.

Magnetic fabric, paleomagnetic, and 40Ar/39Ar geochronologic data bearing on the emplacement of the Late Cretaceous Philipsburg Batholith, SW Montana fold-and-thrust belt

The Late Cretaceous (ca. 75 Ma) Philipsburg Batholith in SW Montana provides an excellent setting to examine the emplacement mechanisms of large-volume silicic plutons in the Sevier fold-and-thrust belt of the western U.S. Cordillera. Magnetic fabrics, determined using the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility from 119 sites and anisotropy of anhysteretic remanent magnetization data from a subset of these sites, suggest that the Philipsburg Batholith is a tabular body and that its emplacement involved subhorizontal magma flow controlled by local thrust faults, including the Georgetown-Princeton thrust, which served as conduits for magma ascent. Field relations and magnetic fabric data, which are typically well characterized at the site level and dominantly subhorizontal except near major thrust faults, suggest that the Philipsburg Batholith was emplaced within a fault-bend fold at the top of a ramp in the Georgetown-Princeton thrust system. New 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age spectrum data indicate that the entire Philipsburg Batholith was emplaced rapidly at ca. 74.8 ± 0.1 Ma. Paleomagnetic directional data indicate that the Philipsburg Batholith has experienced ∼9°–16° ± 8° of west-side-down tilt (tilt estimate and associated error are based on a new approach described herein) since emplacement in the Late Cretaceous. The data do not support any internal deformation of the batholith since emplacement and suggest that Sevier-age thin-skinned deformation in the Flint Creek Range had ceased by ca. 75 Ma. The modest magnitude of observed tilt could have occurred during subsequent Cenozoic extension. The inferred mode of emplacement of the Philipsburg Batholith may typify how large volumes of silicic magma are emplaced in shallow, fold-and-thrust belt settings.

Paleomagnetism and U–Pb geochronology of Franklin dykes in High Arctic Canada and Greenland: a revised age and paleomagnetic pole constraining block rotations in the Nares Strait regionThis is a companion paper to Denyszyn, S.W., Davis, D.W., and Halls, H.C. Paleomagnetism and U–Pb geochronology of the Clarence Head dykes, Arctic Canada: orthogonal emplacement of mafic dykes in a large igneous province.

U–Pb baddeleyite ages and paleomagnetic poles obtained for dykes on Devon Island and Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic and the Thule region of Greenland show that they are associated with the Franklin magmatic event. This study is the only one devoted to Franklin igneous rocks where a primary paleomagnetic remanence and U–Pb age have been obtained from the same rocks. Ages from this study range from 721 to 712 Ma, but paleomagnetic directional data show no clear age progression. The paleomagnetic poles from each of the two regional subsets are significantly different at the 95% confidence level from paleomagnetic results previously published for the Franklin event in the Canadian Shield. The difference in the pole locations can be accounted for, to first approximation, by a simple model of early Cenozoic block rotations among the North American plate, Greenland, and a hypothesized ancient microplate comprising Ellesmere, Devon, Cornwallis, and perhaps Somerset islands. A new grand-mean paleopole for the Franklin event, including restoration of Greenland and the proposed “Ellesmere microplate” to North America, is located at (8.4°N, 163.8°E, A95 = 2.8°, N = 78 sites) and is a key pole for Neoproterozoic supercontinent reconstructions.

Recent investigations of the 0–5 Ma geomagnetic field recorded by lava flows

We present a synthesis of 0–5 Ma paleomagnetic directional data collected from 17 different locations under the collaborative Time Averaged geomagnetic Field Initiative (TAFI). When combined with regional compilations from the northwest United States, the southwest United States, Japan, New Zealand, Hawaii, Mexico, South Pacific, and the Indian Ocean, a data set of over 2000 sites with high quality, stable polarity, and declination and inclination measurements is obtained. This is a more than sevenfold increase over similar quality data in the existing Paleosecular Variation of Recent Lavas (PSVRL) data set, and has greatly improved spatial sampling. The new data set spans 78°S to 53°N, and has sufficient temporal and spatial sampling to allow characterization of latitudinal variations in the time‐averaged field (TAF) and paleosecular variation (PSV) for the Brunhes and Matuyama chrons, and for the 0–5 Ma interval combined. The Brunhes and Matuyama chrons exhibit different TAF geometries, notably smaller departures from a geocentric axial dipole field during the Brunhes, consistent with higher dipole strength observed from paleointensity data. Geographical variations in PSV are also different for the Brunhes and Matuyama. Given the high quality of our data set, polarity asymmetries in PSV and the TAF cannot be attributed to viscous overprints, but suggest different underlying field behavior, perhaps related to the influence of long‐lived core‐mantle boundary conditions on core flow. PSV, as measured by dispersion of virtual geomagnetic poles, shows less latitudinal variation than predicted by current statistical PSV models, or by previous data sets. In particular, the Brunhes data reported here are compatible with a wide range of models, from those that predict constant dispersion as a function of latitude to those that predict an increase in dispersion with latitude. Discriminating among such models could be helped by increased numbers of low‐latitude data and new high northern latitude sites. Tests with other data sets, and with simulations, indicate that some of the latitudinal signature previously observed in VGP dispersion can be attributed to the inclusion of low‐quality, insufficiently cleaned data with too few samples per site. Our Matuyama data show a stronger dependence of dispersion on latitude than the Brunhes data. The TAF is examined using the variation of inclination anomaly with latitude. Best fit two‐parameter models have axial quadrupole contributions of 2–4% of the axial dipole term, and axial octupole contributions of 1–5%. Approximately 2% of the octupole signature is likely the result of bias incurred by averaging unit vectors.

Paleosecular variation and the average geomagnetic field at ±20° latitude

We assembled a new paleomagnetic directional data set from lava flows and thin dikes for four regions centered on ±20° latitude: Hawaii, Mexico, the South Pacific, and Reunion. We investigate geomagnetic field behavior over the past 5 Myr and address whether geographical differences are recorded by our data set. We include inclination data from other globally distributed sites with the ±20° data to determine the best fitting time‐averaged field (TAF) for a two‐parameter longitudinally symmetric (zonal) model. Values for our model parameters, the axial quadrupole and octupole terms, are 4% and 6% of the axial dipole, respectively. Our estimate of the quadrupole term is compatible with most previous studies of deviations from a geocentric axial dipole (GAD) field. Our estimated octupole term is larger than that from normal polarity continental and igneous rocks, and oceanic sediments, but consistent with that from reversed polarity continental and igneous rocks. The variance reduction compared with a GAD field is ∼12%, and the remaining signal is attributed to paleosecular variation (PSV). We examine PSV at ±20° using virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP) dispersion and comparisons of directional distributions with simulations from two statistical models. Regionally, the Hawaii and Reunion data sets lack transitional magnetic directions and have similar inclination anomalies and VGP dispersion. In the Pacific hemisphere, Hawaii has a large inclination anomaly, and the South Pacific exhibits high PSV. The deviation of the TAF from a GAD contradicts earlier ideas of a “Pacific dipole window,” and the strong regional PSV in the South Pacific contrasts with the generally low secular variation found on short timescales. The TAF and PSV at Hawaii and Reunion are distinct from values for the South Pacific and Mexico, demonstrating the need for time‐averaged and paleosecular variation models that can describe nonzonal field structures. Investigations of zonal statistical PSV models reveal that recent models are incompatible with the empirical ±20° directional distributions and cannot fit the data by simply adjusting relative variance contributions to the PSV. The ±20° latitude data set also suggests less PSV and smaller persistent deviations from a geocentric axial dipole field during the Brunhes.

Continuous geomagnetic field models for the past 7 millennia: 2. CALS7K

We present two continuous global geomagnetic field models for recent millennia: CALS3K.2, covering the past 3000 years, and CALS7K.2, covering 7000 years from 5000 BC to 1950 AD. The models were determined by regularized least squares inversion of archeomagnetic and paleomagnetic data using spherical harmonics in space and cubic B splines in time. They are derived from a greatly increased number of paleomagnetic directional data, compared to previous efforts, and for the first time a significant amount of archeointensity data is used in this kind of global model, allowing the determination of evolution of geomagnetic dipole strength. While data accuracy and dating uncertainties remain a limitation, reliable low‐resolution global models can be obtained. The results agree well with previous results from virtual axial dipole moment (VADM) studies from archeomagnetic intensity data apart from a systematic offset in strength. A comparison of model predictions with the previous 3000 year model, CALS3K.1, gives general agreement but also some significant differences particularly for the early epochs. The new models suggest that the prominent two northern hemisphere flux lobes are more stationary than CALS3K.1 implied, extending considerably the time span of stationary flux lobes observed in historical models. Between 5000 BC and 2000 BC there are time intervals of weak dipole moment where dipole power is exceeded by low‐degree nondipole power at the core‐mantle boundary. Model coefficients and evaluation code can be obtained from the EarthRef Digital Archive (ERDA) together with animations and snapshots plots for every 100 years at http://www.earthref.org. Detailed URLs for the different material are listed in Appendix A.

On the equatorial virtual pole distribution

In this paper, we show that the Virtual Geomagnetic Pole (VGP) distribution used in paleomagnetic studies is only one of the 2D spherical projections of a 3D paleomagnetic directional data set. Therefore, in principle, the VGP distribution does not by itself completely represent the paleomagnetic directional data set. We suggest that it is necessary to include in the analyses another 2D spherical projection of a 3D paleomagnetic directional data set—the Equatorial Virtual Pole (EVP) distribution. The EVP is defined as the point 90° from the VGP along the great circle through the VGP and the site. The VGP and EVP distributions represent different aspects of the directional data sets and information not carried in the VGP distribution is carried by the EVP distribution. Ideal VGP and EVP distributions depict different aspects of the characteristics of the geomagnetic field as such that, while the VGPs tend to distribute symmetrically around the regions where the field is perpendicular to the earth’s surface, the EVPs concentrate about the nodal or null flux lines.

Paleomagnetic evidence from Cape Verde Islands basalts for fully reversed excursions in the Brunhes Chron

In this study we present paleomagnetic data from two lava sequences on Santo Antão, Cape Verde Islands: the Tarrafal and Agua Nova profiles from which 63 and 43 lava flows were sampled, respectively. Previous 40Ar/39Ar ages have constrained the two profiles to the Brunhes Chron, which is in accordance with the normal polarity of the majority of the flows. Some individual lava flows as well as flow sequences with virtual geomagnetic poles deviating more than 45° from the geographic North Pole are interpreted to represent geomagnetic excursions. Based on interpretation of the directional data three excursions are recorded in the Tarrafal profile (T-I, T-II, and T-III) and four in the Agua Nova profile (AG-I, AG-II, AG-III, and AG-IV). Both 40Ar/39Ar results and paleomagnetic directional data indicate that an excursion defined by eight flows in the Tarrafal profile (T-I) is the same as one recorded in six flows in the Agua Nova profile (AG-I). This excursion, which passes the reversal test with classification C, is the first geomagnetic excursion in the Brunhes Chron to pass the reversal test. The 40Ar/39Ar ages suggest that this excursion could represent chryptochron C1n-1 (0.493–0.504 Ma), the only chryptochron or ‘tiny wiggle’ identified in the marine magnetic anomaly record for the Brunhes Chron. The remaining excursions may not yet be unambiguously correlated between the two profiles. Another excursion recorded by two flows in the top of the Tarrafal profile (T-III) also displays completely reversed polarity.

Intensity of the Earth's magnetic field in late Archean obtained from diabase dikes of the Slave Province, Canada

The geomagnetic field intensity in Late Archean times is evaluated from Archean diabase dikes intruded into the Yellowknife greenstone belt of the Slave Province, N.W.T., Canada. The dike set used is referred to as the 8a dikes, and their age is bracketed between 2620 and 2642 Ma by crosscutting relationships between the 8a dikes and adjacent granitic rocks dated by U–Pb method. Paleomagnetic directional data after thermal demagnetization (ThD) and results of some field tests suggest that the characteristic remanent magnetizations (ChRM) of the dikes have been acquired at ca. 2.6 Ga. Several rock magnetic studies indicate that the dike samples are suitable for paleointensity determinations. Thelliers' method with consistency checks was used for the paleointensity determinations, and two of the 8a dikes yielded the mean paleointensities of 30.9±1.1 and 43.9±1.2 μT, respectively. The corresponding virtual dipole moments (VDM) of (6.3±0.2)×10 22 A m 2 and (9.0±0.2)×10 22 A m 2 are similar to the present day value, suggesting that, in the Earth's core, the dynamo process of comparable activity to that of the present day has already existed at ca. 2.6 Ga.

Geomagnetic polarity transitions

The top of Earth's liquid outer core is nearly 2900 km beneath Earth's surface, so we will never be able to observe it directly. This hot, dense, molten iron‐rich body is continuously in motion and is the source of Earth's magnetic field. One of the most dynamic manifestations at Earth's surface of this fluid body is, perhaps, a reversal of the geomagnetic field. Unfortunately, the most recent polarity transition occurred at about 780 ka, so we have never observed a transition directly. It seems that a polarity transition spans many human lifetimes, so no human will ever witness the phenomenon in its entirety. Thus we are left with the tantalizing prospect that paleomagnetic records of polarity transitions may betray some of the secrets of the deep Earth. Certainly, if there are systematics in the reversal process and they can be documented, then this will reveal substantial information about the nature of the lowermost mantle and of the outer core. Despite their slowness on a human timescale, polarity transitions occur almost instantaneously on a geological timescale. This rapidity, together with limitations in the paleomagnetic recording process, prohibits a comprehensive description of any reversal transition both now and into the foreseeable future, which limits the questions that may at this stage be sensibly asked. The natural model for the geomagnetic field is a set of spherical harmonic components, and we are not able to obtain a reliable model for even the first few harmonic terms during a transition. Nevertheless, it is possible, in principle, to make statements about the harmonic character of a geomagnetic polarity transition without having a rigorous spherical harmonic description of one. For example, harmonic descriptions of recent geomagnetic polarity transitions that are purely zonal can be ruled out (a zonal harmonic does not change along a line of latitude). Gleaning information about transitions has proven to be difficult, but it does seem reasonable to draw the following conclusions with varying degrees of confidence. There appears to be a substantial decrease in the mean intensity of the dipole field during a transition to ∼25% of its usual value. The duration of an average geomagnetic polarity transition is not well known but probably lies between 1000 and 8000 years. Values outside these bounds have been reported, but we give reasons as to why such outliers are likely to be artifacts. The reversal process is probably longer than the manifestation of the reversal at Earth's surface as recorded in paleomagnetic directional data. Convection hiatus during a geomagnetic polarity transition seems unlikely, and free‐decay models for reversals appear to be generally incompatible with the data. This implies that certain theorems in dynamo theory, such as Cowling's theorem, should not be invoked to explain the origin of reversals. Unfortunately, the detailed description of directional changes during transitions remains controversial. Contrary to common belief, certain low‐degree nondipole fields can produce significant longitudinal confinement of virtual geomagnetic poles (VGP) during a transition. The data are currently inadequate to refute or verify claims of longitudinal dipole confinement, VGP clustering, or other systematics during polarity transitions.

Long‐term geometry of the geomagnetic field for the last five million years: An updated secular variation database

Lee [1983] assembled more than two thousand paleomagnetic directional data from lava flows in 65 sampling sites with ages spanning the last 5 million years. Constable [1992] recently suggested that the virtual geomagnetic poles (VGP) derived from this data base have been preferentially located within two antipodal bands of longitude. We have reanalyzed and updated the Lee data base, yielding a total of 3179 data from 86 distinct sites. Neither the total data set, nor various subsets of the data unambiguously show any large and clear maxima in the longitude distribution of VGPs. The shape of the common site longitude distribution is far more striking with a pronounced (and robust) minimum close to the common site longitude and secondary maxima about 120° away from it. The former (first order) feature is equivalent to the far‐sided effect discovered by Wilson [1970] and corresponds to a persistent axial quadrupole amounting to about 5% of the axial dipole, as previously found by several authors. The latter (second order) feature could correspond to the VGP biasing effect described by Egbert [1992] although its observed amplitude appears larger than predicted. Part of this effect (an asymmetry in the maxima) may also correspond to Wilson's [1971] right‐handed effect. Given only a small axial quadrupolar component and the very uneven actual site distribution, the expected longitude distribution of VGPs can be calculated: this is found to be in good agreement with the paleomagnetic observations (i.e. rather flat with a moderate maximum near 120°E). This study emphasizes problems related to the unsatisfactory distribution of sites. The amplitude and significance of other terms, beyond the dominant axial dipole and significant axial quadrupole contribution, remain to be assessed.

Petrologic, paleomagnetic, and structural evidence of a Paleozoic rift system in Oklahoma, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah

A west-northwest–trending dike swarm consisting of at least 50 mafic dikes cuts Precambrian basement rocks in the area in and south of the Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Colorado, and in Unaweap Canyon near the Colorado-Utah border. The dikes have been studied petrographically, petrochemically, and paleomagnetically, and they have been radiometrically dated. Lithologically, the dike rocks are very similar, consisting of tholeiitic diabase composed primarily of labradorite, augite, and granophyric intergrowths of quartz and alkali feldspar. A Rb-Sr isochron based on mineral separates from one dike yields an age of 495 ±15 m.y. which is statistically identical with a previously reported Rb-Sr date. Pooling the age data for these two dikes gives an age of 497 ± 16 m.y. Whole-rock K-Ar dates on four of the dikes are scattered around the Rb-Sr date and indicate that the dikes have been relatively unaffected by reheating or hydrothermal activity since emplacement. Paleomagnetic directional data from nine of the dikes are well grouped and consistent after both alternating-field (AF) and thermal demagnetization. Several lines of evidence indicate that the remanence reflects the dipolar geomagnetic field direction at the time the dikes were emplaced. Paleopoles corresponding to the mean directions are located at 37.0°N, 101.0°E, δp = 8.6°, δm = 16.4° (AF demagnetization) and 37.0°N, 102.3°E, δp = 4.9°, δm = 9.4° (thermal demagnetization). The consistency of the paleomagnetic data corroborates the idea that the dike swarm is the result of one short pulse of mantle-derived magmatic activity. The dike swarm and other Cambro-Ordovician igneous rocks in Colorado (Powderhorn alkalic complex, Wet Mountains alkalic complexes and dikes) are aligned along a linear west-northwest trend. Cambrian diabase dikes in northeastern New Mexico and a bimodal suite (basalt–gabbro-rhyolite–granite) in southern Oklahoma (Wichita and Arbuckle Mountains, Anadarko Basin) are on line with this trend. Petrologically, all of these Cambrian and Cambro-Ordovician igneous rocks represent types that are typically associated with extensional tectonic regimes. From these data and consideration of documented Paleozoic tectonic activity along the trend of the plutons, it is concluded that throughout the Paleozoic, a west-northwest–trending tectonic zone extended from southeastern Oklahoma, through northeastern New Mexico and Colorado, and into southeastern Utah. Bimodal (basalt-rhyolite) and alkalic igneous activity was restricted to the Cambrian and Cambro-Ordovician, but tectonic activity occurred intermittently along the zone throughout the Paleozoic.

The Intensity of the Tertiary Geomagnetic Field

Summary Although many paleomagnetic directional data are now available, very little is known of the ancient intensity of the Earth's magnetic field. This paper describes the determination of the Tertiary geomagnetic field intensity using baked contacts (red sandstones, conglomerates and dykes) and dykes from Scotland and lavas and baked laterites from Iceland. The field intensity results obtained correspond to a mean Tertiary dipole moment of 4.94 × 1025 gauss. cm3 in Scotland and a mean Tertiary dipole moment of 5.34 × 1025 gauss. cm3 in Iceland. These values contrast with the present geomagnetic dipole moment which is 8.0 × 1025 gauss. cm3.