Paired-stimulus Preference Assessment Research Articles

Preference for social stimuli: A comparison of stimulus modes used in preference assessments

AbstractSocial stimuli are some of the most commonly used reinforcers. Previous research shows that preference for social stimuli can be identified using paired‐stimulus preference assessments (PSPA) employing various stimulus modes (e.g., pictures of the actual social stimuli). To date, no study has evaluated the correspondence in preference for social stimuli identified via PSPAs completed using three differing stimulus modes. Therefore, this study compared the correspondence in preference hierarchy identified via PSPAs completed using video of the social stimuli (VSM), pictures of the actual social stimuli (PSM‐A), and drawings of the social stimuli (PSM‐D) and whether preference hierarchy remained stable over repeated administration of the PSPAs (i.e., 1 month). Moreover, we assessed participants' preference for the three types of stimulus modes. Results demonstrated that during the initial PSPAs, preference hierarchies were most similar across the PSPAs completed using VSM and PSM‐A, that preference was most stable across repeated administration of the PSPAs completed using the VSM, and that participants' preference for differing stimulus modes was idiosyncratic. Moreover, the PSPAs completed using the VSM required the longest amount of time to create materials and administer the assessment.

Evaluating two iterations of a paired stimulus preference assessment

AbstractThe paired stimulus preference assessment (PSPA) is commonly used in both research and practice. However, two iterations have been described: a single‐presentation arrangement in which each tested stimulus is paired with one another once and a double‐presentation arrangement in which each tested stimulus is paired twice with counterbalanced placement. Each arrangement may have different advantages; however, no direct comparison exists. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to conduct both PSPA iterations to determine whether there are differences in the results obtained and which iteration was most efficient regarding time to administer. Seven participants were included, and results demonstrated high degrees of correspondence across preference assessment formats. The average time to administer the single‐presentation PSPA (M =6.6 min) was almost half the time to administer a double‐presentation PSPA (M =12.9 min), and no significant differences were observed for problem behavior, side biases, or latency to stimulus selection.

Single- vs. combined-category preference assessments for edible, leisure, and social-interaction stimuli.

A concern when conducting combined-category preference assessments is the potential for displacement effects, a shift in the preference ranking from highly preferred to moderately or less preferred for stimuli in two of three stimulus categories (e.g., edible, leisure, or social-interaction). In this study, we evaluated potential displacement effects in combined-category arrays of edible, leisure, and social-interaction stimuli for five individuals with autism. First, single-category paired-stimulus preference assessments were implemented to identify two highly preferred stimuli from each category. When these stimuli were included in a combined-category preference assessment, displacement effects were observed for three of five participants. During a subsequent reinforcer assessment, stimuli identified as less preferred in the combined-category preference assessment functioned as reinforcers for two participants. Additionally, although social interaction was not identified as highly preferred for three of the five participants, it functioned as a reinforcer for four participants.

A comparison of paired- and multiple-stimulus-without-replacement preference assessments to identify reinforcers for dog behavior.

Dogs may be relinquished to shelters and are unlikely to be adopted if they engage in problem behavior. A successful way to eliminate problem behavior is through training techniques based on behavioral principles. Obedience training with the use of positive reinforcement has been successful in treating problematic behavior by dogs. In order for this method to work, it is essential that the stimuli selected function as reinforcers. Preference assessments can be used to identify these potential reinforcers. A preference assessment is a systematic method used to identify stimuli that may serve as possible reinforcers by yielding preference hierarchies. Although preference and reinforcer assessments have been successfully used with humans, research with nonhuman animals is limited. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to compare the efficacy and efficiency of paired-stimulus preference assessment with a multiple-stimulus preference assessment. The results suggested that the results of both preference assessments corresponded with reinforcer assessments but that the paired-stimulus method was the most efficient.

Advancing Methods in Animal-Assisted Intervention: Demonstration of Starting Points in Clinical Practice for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Therapy animals have been frequently included in interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, direct and systematic procedures such as assessing preference for and reinforcing efficacy of the animals are rarely conducted. Assessing preference for stimuli is valuable when determining how to make interventions for children with ASD most effective. We conducted paired-stimulus preference assessments and follow-up reinforcer assessments to determine if a therapy dog might be an effective reinforcer. We found one third of participants preferred the dog the least, one third of participants moderately preferred the dog, and one third of participants highly preferred the dog relative to other stimuli. Furthermore, we found preference predicted reinforcing efficacy for five of six participants. We suggest clinicians systematically conduct assessments to clearly identify the role of the therapy animal, to improve quality of, and demonstrate efficacy of interventions including animals for clinical populations.

Comparing Video Modeling and Computer-Based Instruction to Teach Preference Assessment Implementation

ABSTRACT Research is needed to identify staff training techniques that optimize training time and do not require the presence of a staff trainer. Asynchronous training procedures, such as video modeling and computer-based instruction, do not require the simultaneous presence of a trainer and trainee, but include different training characteristics that must be evaluated (i.e., active responding during computer-based instruction and non-active responding during video modeling). The purpose of the present study was to compare video modeling and computer-based instruction on trainee implementation of a paired-stimulus preference assessment. Results demonstrated that both training techniques were effective for training staff to implement stimulus preference assessments. Results are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.

Evaluating the effects of social interaction on the results of preference assessments for leisure items.

A variable that may influence the outcomes of stimulus preference assessments (SPAs) is whether social interaction is provided during the stimulus access period. In Experiment 1, we compared the outcomes of a Solitary paired stimulus preference assessment (PSPA) (toys only), Social PSPA (toys plus social interaction), and Combined PSPA (toys alone and toys plus social interaction) to determine whether the addition of social interaction influenced preference for toys in preschool children. In Experiment 2, we conducted a concurrent-operant reinforcer assessment to compare the reinforcing efficacy of stimuli with and without social interaction. Experiment 1 showed preference for toys was stable across assessments (Solitary and Social PSPAs) and most participants preferred toys plus social interaction when compared in a single assessment (Combined PSPA). Experiment 2 showed that results of the Combined PSPA in Experiment 1 predicted the outcome of most participants' reinforcer assessments.

The Use of Stimulus Preference Assessments to Determine Procedural Acceptability for Participants

The social validity of behavior intervention is rooted in consumer perception. This information is typically garnered through questionnaires and interviews conducted with relevant consumers such as teachers or caregivers. Often, the participants (i.e., the individuals with disabilities receiving the intervention) play less of a role in the assessment of social validity, despite their primary role in intervention. This study examines a procedure for including participants in the assessment of social validity, namely procedural acceptability. Three participants selected their preferred intervention in a paired stimulus preference assessment. Videos presented the intervention options, and participants’ preferred interventions were implemented. These interventions decreased target behavior(s) and increased on-task behavior for all participants. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for use of this procedure and considerations for including participants in social validity assessments.

Assessing Preference in a Paired-Stimulus Arrangement with Captive Vultures (Aegypius Monachus)

ABSTRACT Vultures play an important role in our ecosystem by filtering out bacteria and viruses harmful to humans (e.g., rabies, botulism). However, many vultures remain in human care due to skill deficits and behavioral excesses, which can be treated using behavior-management practices that rely on effective (often edible) reinforcers. The current study replicated the forced-choice or paired-stimulus preference assessment with five birds of prey. Across all vultures, participants displayed a preference for animal (e.g., meat) over nonanimal stimuli (e.g., fruit), and mice meat was the most preferred edible for 4 of the 5 vultures. The application of this methodology to birds of prey might allow rehabilitators, conservationists, and other caretakers to make greater gains in training vultures to both acquire new skills and decrease problem behavior using highly preferred edible items.

A comparison of methods for assessing preference for social interactions.

Researchers have evaluated a variety of methods for assessing preference for social interactions, and generally have found that such assessments accurately identify differentially reinforcing, preferred interactions. However, few researchers have compared methods for assessing preference for social interactions, and none have done so with participants across different skill levels. The current study compared the stability and validity of hierarchies produced by social interaction preference assessments (SIPA) and picture-based multiple stimulus without replacement preference assessments (MSWO) with 8 individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The MSWO most often produced valid hierarchies for participants who could match, identify, and tact pictures of social interactions and that the SIPA most often produced valid hierarchies for participants who could not identify or tact pictures of social interactions. A vocal paired-stimulus preference assessment (PSPA) was also conducted with a subset of participants who communicated vocally, and it produced valid hierarchies. Considerations and recommendations for selecting a method of assessing preference for social interactions are discussed.

Effect of conducting behavioral observations and ratings on staff implementation of a paired-stimulus preference assessment.

We assessed the effects of trainees observing and rating the accuracy of others implementing a paired-stimulus preference assessment from video on the trainees' subsequent implementation accuracy. These observational experiences increased implementation accuracy with both a confederate and an actual consumer. These results suggest conducting observations and accuracy ratings may prepare staff to implement behavioral procedures without need of a dedicated trainer.

Preference for Food and Non-food Items of Known Reinforcing Values in People with Developmental Disabilities

When presenting reinforcers to individuals with developmental disabilities, many researchers use food. However, there may be other types of reinforcers which may be equally or more effective. Although preference assessment methods have been well-researched, one area that has not yet been resolved is whether food reinforcers are always more preferred than non-food reinforcers, when both are presented in the same assessment. This study compared preference for food and non-food items with similar and dissimilar reinforcing values in three people with developmental disabilities. The study first evaluated the reinforcing value of food and non-food items in an ABAB design. Selected food and non-food items with similar and dissimilar reinforcing values were presented in a subsequent paired-stimulus preference assessment. Results showed that when food and non-food items were of approximately equal reinforcing value, or when food was more reinforcing than the non-food items, food tended to be preferred. However, when non-food items were much more reinforcing than food items, non-food items tended to be preferred.

Evaluation of video self-instruction for implementing paired-stimulus preference assessments.

We trained four undergraduate students who reported no prior experience implementing behavior-analytic procedures to conduct a paired-stimulus preference assessment using a video self-instruction package. The package was composed of several components from prior research (i.e., a voice-over script, written instructions, multiple video models per step, and instructions for the trainee to rehearse throughout the video presentation). We used a nonconcurrent, multiple-baseline-across-participants design and found that all participants accurately implemented the preference assessment with a simulated client after viewing the video once. We discuss the contributions of the current results and directions for future research on video self-instruction for staff (i.e., maintenance, generalization, social validity).

Comparison of arousal and preference assessment outcomes for sex offenders with intellectual disabilities.

We compared outcomes of arousal and preference assessments for five adult male alleged sexual offenders with intellectual disabilities. Arousal assessments involved the use of the penile plethysmograph to measure changes in penile circumference to both deviant (males and females under the age of 18) and nondeviant (males and females over the age of 18) video clips. Paired-stimulus preference assessments were arranged to present still images from the video clips used in the arousal assessments. Results showed correspondence between the assessments for four out of the five participants. Implications are discussed for the use of preference assessment methodology as a less intrusive assessment approach for sexual offender assessments.

Preference assessment training via self-instruction: A replication and extension.

We examined the effects of a self-instructional and feedback package on participants' implementation of a paired-stimulus preference assessment. Specifically, in Experiment 1, we used a multiple baseline design across participants to replicate and extend the results of Graff and Karsten (2012) by evaluating the effectiveness of their self-instructional manual. A majority of the participants (i.e., 5 of 7 undergraduate students and 4 of 5 in-home behavior technicians) achieved mastery with the self-instructional package. The remaining participants met the mastery criterion after brief modeling and feedback sessions. In Experiment 2, we identified the most effective component of the feedback condition from Experiment 1 when a self-instructional package was not sufficient. Brief feedback sessions in which participants received a list of the targeted responses plus information regarding accuracy of emitted responses was sufficient for 5 of 6 participants to achieve mastery.

Comparing Paired-Stimulus Preference Assessments With In-the-Moment Reinforcer Analysis on Skill Acquisition: A Preliminary Investigation

Today, the use of formal preference assessments, including paired-stimulus preference assessments, is widely utilized to help determine which items to use as reinforcers during intervention. A second way to determine potential reinforcers is to analyze multiple dimensions of a stimulus in the moment, a procedure known as in-the-moment reinforcer analysis. Although paired-stimulus preference assessments are widely used, there is no experimental evidence that extensive advance preference assessments actually produce higher rates of learning than in-the-moment reinforcer analysis. The present study compared rates of learning on a simple expressive labeling task when correct responses were reinforced with items selected based on extensive formal paired-preference assessments versus items selected by a teacher using in-the-moment analysis of reinforcer effects. The results indicated no clear difference in skill acquisition, but there were clear differences in terms of efficiency and maintenance.

Are video-based preference assessments without access to selected stimuli effective?

This study extended the findings of Snyder, Higbee, and Dayton (2012) by presenting items via video during a paired-stimulus preference assessment but without providing access contingent on selection. Subsequently, items identified as highly, moderately, and less preferred were assessed in a concurrent reinforcer assessment, which suggested that these items did indeed function as reinforcers.

A method to assess relative preference for training and environmental enrichment in captive wolves (Canis lupus and Canis lupus arctos).

It is currently debated as to whether or not positive reinforcement training is enriching to captive animals. Although both husbandry training and environmental enrichment (EE) have been found to benefit animal welfare in captivity, to date, no systematic investigation has compared an animal's preference for performing a trained behavior to engaging freely with a stimuli provided as EE. In the current paper, we used four captive wolves to (1) test the efficacy of a paired-stimulus preference assessment to determine preference for engaging in a trained behavior as a choice; and to (2) use a paired-stimulus preference assessment to determine whether or not individuals prefer to engage in a previously trained behavior versus a previously encountered EE stimuli. Of the four subjects tested, visual inspection of the graphs revealed that two of the subjects preferred trained behavior stimuli and two of the subjects preferred EE stimuli; only one of the wolves had a statically higher preference for an EE stimulus over a trained behavior. We believe that letting the animals choose between these two events is the first step in answering the question of whether or not is training enriching, however more research needs to be done and suggestions for future research is discussed.

Increasing the efficiency of paired-stimulus preference assessments by identifying categories of preference.

A paired-stimulus preference assessment was conducted for 6 individuals with developmental disabilities. We selected stimuli that were representatives of 4 categories: chocolate, salty and crunchy, gummy, and fruit and vegetable. For all 6 participants, at least 3 of the 5 most preferred items came from the same category. On subsequent reinforcer assessments, items from the highest ranked preference category, some of which were included in the preference assessments and some of which were not, functioned as reinforcers. These findings suggest that after categories of preferred items are identified, clinicians may be able to identify reinforcers for some individuals without conducting additional assessments.

Is preference a predictor of enrichment efficacy in Galapagos tortoises (Chelonoidis nigra)?

It is widely acknowledged that environmental enrichment plays an important role in promoting the welfare of captive animals. However, a topic of debate is whether an animal's preference for an enrichment strategy is any indicator of its efficacy. In addition, relatively few studies have evaluated environmental enrichment strategies for non-mammalian species. In the present study, we compared the results of an observational evaluation of enrichment efficacy with the results of a paired-stimulus preference assessment for three Galapagos tortoises. In the observational study, object enrichment (boomer balls and a free-flowing sprinkler) and keeper interactions (shell scrubbing and neck rubbing) were evaluated systematically for their effects on locomotion, species-typical behavior, aggressive and non-aggressive conspecific interactions, and enclosure. Preference assessments were subsequently conducted in which subjects could choose the enrichment strategy to be implemented. All subjects preferred keeper interactions consistently over object enrichment. Our results suggest that enrichment preference was a variable predictor of efficacy across enrichment species-typical behavior, activity levels, enclosure use, and aggressive and non-aggressive conspecific interactions strategies. Preference predicted efficacy for promoting species-typical behavior (1/3 subjects), activity levels (2/3 subjects), and enclosure use (2/3 subjects), but not conspecific interactions (0/3 subjects). The results suggest that preference may be an efficient predictor of enrichment efficacy when daily observational evaluations are not practical; however, the predictive utility of preference assessments may depend on the behavioral goal of the enrichment strategy. We discuss the need for future research examining the relationship between preference and enrichment efficacy-as well as other potential indicators of enrichment effectiveness-in captive animals.