Painting Sculpture Research Articles

Making It Last: Training Conservators in Sustainable Solutions for Treating Outdoor Painted Sculpture

ABSTRACT Outdoor painted sculptures (OPSs) are a regular feature of public spaces and private collections throughout the world. Their painted finishes can appear deceptively simple, but their esthetic is a subtle combination of color, texture, and reflectance, making them challenging to care for and repair. OPSs are exposed to direct sunlight, rain, wind, pollutants, human interactions, and biological debris from plants and animals. Conservation of these artworks is a matter of preserving an artist’s esthetic intent, rather than the original paint system, which will inevitably need to be replaced. This paper discusses the development of the Getty Conservation Institute workshop Treatment Strategies for OPS, to develop skills in this specialized area of conservation. The full repainting of an artwork is expensive, laborious, logistically challenging, and includes the use of chemicals and processes with significant carbon footprints: improving the economic and environmental sustainability of these treatments has become imperative. The workshop teaches participants strategies that help stave off full repainting, such as working with specialized painters for lasting localized repairs, removing graffiti without altering the sculpture’s finish, and creating regular maintenance programs that help prevent deterioration.

Analysis of the materials and processes of hanging sculptures in Guanyin Hall

Changzhi Guanyin Hall, a folk temple from the Ming Dynasty, embodies the essence of the ‘unity of the three religions’ philosophy, centred around Guanyin Bodhisattva. Over 500 sculptures reside within a modest 70 m2 space, encompassing representations from Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Ranging from a towering 2 m to a mere 10 cm, these sculptures depict an array of characters and mythological scenes, bestowing considerable importance upon the painted sculptures of Guanyin Hall. Varying degrees of deterioration have affected these sculptures due to the passage of time and suboptimal preservation conditions, highlighting the imperative need for meticulous restoration efforts. However, the absence of comprehensive analyses pertaining to the production process of Guanyin Hall sculptures has hindered the restoration groundwork. This study focuses on fallen hanging sculptures and debris, encompassing intact sculptures, clay fragments, wooden sticks, plant fibres, wires and pigments. Employing a series of techniques, including X-ray photography, microscopic analysis, mineral analysis (MLA), laser particle size testing, ion chromatography, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), X-ray diffractometer (XRD) and energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM–EDS) analysis, this research characterises the constituent materials used in crafting these artifacts. Instead of a full-body skeleton, the findings reveal that the small hanging sculpture is supported by delicate wires that hold specific areas, such as the arms and the gown hems. The hanging sculptures are made from a single type of clay and are reinforced with either mulberry bast or wheat straw fibres. A Pinaceae wood stick affixes the head to the body, and the sculpture is then suspended on the wall through nails inserted into the feet. The moulded clay undergoes a sequence of carving, drying and polishing and is coated with a white ash layer before receiving intricate painting. Mineral pigments, including cinnabar, red lead, iron red, cerussite, atacamite, brochantite and azurite, adorn the surface of the sculptures, with gold foil embellishing the golden elements. The intricate artisanry and multifaceted material composition of Guanyin Hall’s painted sculptures render them unparalleled artistic treasures, not solely within Shanxi but across the entire nation. Furthermore, this study establishes a dependable foundation for conservation and restoration endeavours.

A Study on Evaluation Methods of Conserving Painted Sculpture

A lot of individual research on materials and methods suitable for the color of the paint layer has been conducted in the conservation of existing painted sculptures. However, there was no guidance standard for conservation treatment and repainting of painted sculptures, and an evaluation method for objective conservation management was required as deterioration continued in the outdoors. Therefore, in this study, the conservation treatment effect was confirmed by comparing and evaluating the physical properties of the original paint and the replacement paint by citing two cases. Based on the survey items : SEM observation (a cross-section and surface defect) and local EDS analysis, comparison of chromaticity and color difference, evaluation of adhesion and adhesive bond strength, and a salt spray test, a condition status table was prepared and applied to the specimen. Based on the results of applying the completed condition status table in the future, it is judged that it can be an objective data onto conservation treatment of outdoor painted sculptures and public artworks.

Gaining Instead of Losing: The Image of Dunhuang as a Religious Heritage in a WeChat Mini-Programme

In 2020, a WeChat mini-programme called the Dunhuang E-Tour (云游敦煌) was launched during the COVID-19 pandemic to showcase one of China’s most important religious heritage sites, the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes (also known as the Dunhuang Caves), and it attracted a considerable number of online tourists. Unlike the colonial image of Dunhuang in Chinese public discourse, the mini-programme does not focus on Dunhuang’s history; rather, it provides a dynamic and interactive representation of Dunhuang’s religious murals, painted sculptures and cave architecture. To reflect the impact of the mini-programme’s digital mechanisms on users’ experience, this study adopts an analytical framework that combines the walkthrough method and religious tourist perspectives to explore the image of the digital Dunhuang and how it was shaped. The analysis finds that the functions of the Dunhuang E-Tour create a culturally rich image of Dunhuang, which subverts its decades-long Dunhuang image as a site of loss in Chinese public discourse. This difference in images mirrors the potential impact of China’s recent cultural policy of ‘cultural confidence’ in relation to its cultural and creative industries.

Discussion on Two Intangible Cultural Heritage Inheritance Patterns: A Case Study of Dunhuang Painted Sculpture

The Dunhuang painted sculpture production boasts a unique hand-making technique with a long history, yet its inheritance is at stake with the change of times. How to make the painted sculpture technique be inherited is the issue we would like to conduct a depth exploration for. The paper has analyzed, compared, and summarized two protection approaches (i.e., a top-down pattern versus a bottom-up pattern) for the intangible cultural heritage (ICH), aiming to seek a proper direction to achieve an all-around inheritance of the painted sculpture technique. The top-down pattern is authoritative and systematical and is easy to manage and practice, whereas the bottom-up pattern is more flexible to prevail among folks to arouse their cultural identity and passion for traditional Chinese techniques. The painted sculpture technique will be lively again as long as the two approaches are integrated together to work towards the common objective.

Materials and techniques used in the manufacture of painted sculptures at Fushan Temple (1595–1882 AD), Heyang County, Shaanxi Province, China

The painted sculptures in ancient Chinese folk temples are important traditional folk painting art forms, and it is of great significance for painted sculptures conservation to study the materials and techniques employed in their production. In this study, firstly, the samples from eight different colored painted sculptures were collected at Fushan Temple (1595–1882 AD) in Heyang County, Shaanxi Province, China. Secondly, the surface morphology and cross-sectional structure of the painted sculptures were investigated using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In addition, qualitative and semi-quantitative studies of the elemental and physical phase compositions of the materials used in the manufacture of the painted sculptures were conducted by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The results showed that the painted sculpture samples from Fushan Temple comprised a pigment layer, white powder layer, fine clay layer, and coarse clay layer from the outside to the inside. The white powder layer was made of chalk, with functions in color development and leveling. The fine clay layer comprised quartz and other sand particles with small grain sizes. The coarse clay layer comprised feldspar and cotton silk, with larger grain size. In addition, the pigments used in the painted sculptures were chrome red, lapis lazuli, phthalocyanine green, earth green, amorphous carbon black, iron oxide red, and pyrite. The green pigment was earth green in the early stages but it was later repainted with phthalocyanine green mixed with some lapis lazuli pigments for toning. In addition, the dark green and brown pigments comprised mixtures of amorphous carbon black and phthalocyanine green, and amorphous carbon black and iron oxide red, respectively.

Paints analysis and conservation treatment of painted sculpture: Jean Dubuffet, Guard Dog II

Guard Dog II (1969–1970) by Jean Dubuffet is an artwork that shows the characteristics of the artist's l'hourloupe period (1962–1974). This study revealed the materials and manufacturing techniques used by the artist at the time through material analysis of Guard Dog II, and suggested an appropriate conservation treatment method for the work through a cleaning test. Dust, stains, discoloration, cracks, etc. were observed on the surface of the artwork and stains were particularly severe and discoloration required conservation treatment. Prior to treatment, multiple analytical approaches such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and gas chromatography/mass spectrometer were applied to identify the materials of the paint layers and confirm the state of the conservation of the artworks. As a result, it was confirmed that polyurethane paint was used in the artwork, and the pigment used for each color was also identified. For the stable conservation treatment of the artwork, the chromaticity, glossiness and workability of the cleaning materials were evaluated, and it was found that isopropyl alcohol and nonionic surfactant were suitable for cleaning. The conservation treatment was performed based on results from the cleaning test, and the artwork was restored cleanly. Since most of the existing research on cleaning methods has been focused on painting, this study contributes to the conservation of sculptures by suggesting cleaning methods suitable for three-dimensional colored objects.Article highlightsThe materials and production techniques used in Jean Dubuffet, Guard Dog II were confirmed.As cleaning materials for deteriorated artworks, isopropyl alcohol and non-ionic surfactants are effective.Hydrogels are not suitable for this work due to the type and characteristics of the gels.

Ultima opera di Malvasia: 'Il Claustro di S. Michele in Bosco' e la decorazione carraccesca tra finzione e verità

The Carracci's decorative vocabulary (from the early Bolognese friezes to the cycles of the Farnese Gallery in Rome and of the Cloister of San Michele in Bosco in Bologna) made extensive use of anthropomorphic supports, especially telamons and terms. Painted with a monochromatic technique, they deceived the beholder for their effective imitation of marble sculptures that illusively jut from the surface of the wall. While art historical scholarship mainly discussed them in regard to their chronology, attribution, iconography and their relationship with the Cinquecento decoration systems, their early reception still lacks a comprehensive assessment. This essay aims to undertake it through the case study of Il Claustro di S. Michele in Bosco, the last art-historical work by Malvasia. A section of this booklet is dedicated to the chiaroscuro"Termini" flanking the episodes of the life of St. Benedict painted by Ludovico Carracci and his pupils in the cloister of the Bolognese Olivetan monastery. Giacomo Giovannini, the engraver to whom Malvasia commissioned the illustrations included in the volume, also reproduced these painted sculptures in four etchings. By referring to a central couplet from the famous sonnet by Agostino Carracci "in lode di Nicolò Bolognese", he characterized Ludovico's (and Reni's) telamons as Michelangiolesque in their contour and Tizianesque in their naturalezza, as opposed to Annibale's terms frescoed in the Farnese Gallery, whose style Malvasia considered too harsh and dry ("statuino"). In this essay, Malvasia's notes on the cloister's telamons will be compared to his previous critical works and will be contextualized within the seventeenth-century Literature of Art and the coeval reproductive printmaking. As I will demonstrate, Malvasia aimed to restore the central role played by Agostino and Ludovico in the renovation of this decorative style, a role that was obscured by Annibale's growing fame in this genre of painting, particularly driven by the prints after his frescoes in the Farnese Palace published in the second half of the seventeenth century. On cover:ANNIBALE CARRACCI (BOLOGNA 1560 - ROME 1609), An Allegory of Truth and Time c. 1584-1585.Oil on canvas | 130,0 x 169,6 cm. (support, canvas/panel/str external) | RCIN 404770Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021.

Craftsmanship and materials: painted Bodhisattva sculptures in the Fengguo Temple dated to the year 1020\xa0in Yi County, Northeast China

As a royal temple, the Fengguo Temple has profound historical, artistic, scientific and social values. With a thousand-year history, it is one of the three existing temples of the Liao Dynasty in China. Now there remains the Main Hall with delicate wall paintings and vivid painted sculptures. The research subject of this paper is the painted Bodhisattva sculptures in the Main Hall. The study target is to reveal the craftsmanship and materials of the painted Bodhisattva sculptures. X-ray detection and the ground-penetrating radar were employed to explore the internal structure of the painted sculptures reasonably. Through microscope analysis, X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, X-ray diffractometer, scanning electron microscopy and infrared spectroscopic analysis, the chemical constituents and hierarchical structure of the pigment layer were detected and analyzed. The grain composition and chemical composition of the base layer were presented as well. The research results offer detailed documents for subsequent restoration and pave the way for preventive conservation. Finally, this paper summarized the craftsmanship and materials of painted sculpture works in different periods, so as to explore the development history of the painted sculptures culture.

Analytical study of Buddha sculptures in Jingyin temple of Taiyuan, China

With exquisite design and unique style, the painted sculptures of Tutang Buddha and two attendants Buddha in Jingyin Temple are precious cultural heritages of China. The sculpture of Tutang Buddha, which was carved from a mound and painted by ancient craftsmen, was rarely found in ancient China. However, due to natural and human factors, the sculptures were severely damaged. Obviously, they require urgent and appropriate protection and restoration. In this study, samples taken from the sculptures were analysed through multiple analytical techniques, including scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM–EDS), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscopy (OM) and granulometry. The analysis results enable us to infer the techniques used by the craftsmen in making the sculptures and provide a reliable evidence for the conservation and future protection of these and similar sculptures.

Experimental investigation on the correlation between rainfall infiltration and the deterioration of wall paintings at Mogao Grottoes, China

The Mogao Grottoes is famous around the world for its exquisite wall paintings and colorful painted sculptures, and was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1987. Although the site is located in an arid area, water is still one of the main factors threatening the long-term preservation of cultural relics. The relationship between rainfall infiltration and wall painting deterioration was investigated as part of efforts to develop conservation strategies to prevent deterioration caused by atmospheric precipitation. This was done through artificial rainfall simulation experiments and high-density electrical non-destructive test. Areas prone to wall painting deterioration, as evidenced by periodic condition assessment, showed an association between further deterioration and natural heavy rainfall. The results show that the covering layer above the grottoes has a small runoff coefficient, and the rainfall infiltration is much larger than the volume of runoff produced. The rainwater migrates preferentially along the rock fractures in the form of gas or through the gaps between the grotto eaves and the rock, or through cracks in the form of liquid. This is the main mechanism for activation of salt damage and deterioration of the wall paintings. The covering layer above the grottoes is thin, and the through-cracks in the surrounding rock or external wooden eaves are particularly vulnerable to rainfall infiltration. This indicates that more attention should be paid to the system of preventive protection by rainwater disposal. This research has important practical value in improving preventive protection of the Mogao Grottoes.

Correction: Correction: The microbial community characteristics of ancient painted sculptures in Maijishan Grottoes, China

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179718.].

A Painted Viking-Age Sculpture from York

This paper records and discusses a recent discovery of a Viking-age stone carving from York, the subsequent cleaning and conservation of which has revealed large areas of original lime plaster priming layer and pigment coating, including the first recorded use in Northumbrian sculpture of lead white.

The microbial community characteristics of ancient painted sculptures in Maijishan Grottoes, China.

In this study, a culture-independent Illumina MiSeq sequencing strategy was applied to investigate the microbial communities colonizing the ancient painted sculptures of the Maijishan Grottoes, a famous World Cultural Heritage site listed by UNESCO in China. Four mixed samples were collected from Cave 4–4 of the Maijishan Grottoes, the so-called Upper Seven Buddha Pavilion, which was built during the Northern Zhou Dynasty (557-581AD). The 16/18S rRNA gene-based sequences revealed a rich bacterial diversity and a relatively low fungal abundance, including the bacterial groups Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia and the fungal groups Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and Chytridiomycota. Among them, the bacteria genera of Pseudonocardia and Rubrobacter and unclassified fungi in the order of Capnodiales were dominant. The relative abundance of Pseudonocardia in the painted layer samples was higher than that in the dust sample, while Cyanobacteria dominated in the dust sample. Many of them have been discovered at other cultural heritage sites and associated with the biodeterioration of cultural relics. The presence and activity of these pioneering microorganisms may lead to an unexpected deterioration of the painted sculptures that are preserved in this heritage site. Thus, proper management strategies and potential risk monitoring should be used in the Maijishan Grottoes to improve the conservation of these precious painted sculptures.

Polyurethane coatings in twentieth century outdoor painted sculptures. Part II: comparative study of four systems by means of Py-GC/MS

Because PU coatings offer a compromise between aesthetic and performance expectations, unachievable with other types of industrial paints, they are currently recognized as the most appropriate option to coat sculptures intended for an outdoor setting. However, the PU class includes various systems, such as two package solvent-borne, two package water-borne, one package water-borne and fluoropolymer polyurethanes, which possess very different properties. 115 reference samples of PU coatings were investigated by means of Py-GC/MS, in order to outline the differences and the similarities existing, in terms of composition, between the major PU systems used for creating as well as for conserving modern painted outdoor sculptures. The Py-GC/MS study of an extended number of reference samples showed that the composition of equivalent PU systems strongly varies depending on the product line and the manufacturer. Furthermore the comparison of all the produced pyrograms allowed defining characteristic marker compounds helpful to discriminate specific PU paint systems.

Polyurethane coatings used in twentieth century outdoor painted sculptures. Part I: comparative study of various systems by means of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy

Like acrylics and alkyds, polyurethanes (PUs) represent an important class of industrial paints adopted by 20th and 21st artists; primarily by those creating outdoor painted sculptures (OPS). Because PU coatings offer a compromise between aesthetic and performance expectations, unachievable with other types of paints, they are commonly recognized as the most appropriate option for painted artworks intended for an outdoor setting. However, the PU class includes various systems and subgroups possessing very different properties. Through the FTIR-ATR study of 137 PU coating references from the Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) reference collection, this paper outlines the differences and the similarities existing, in terms of the composition, of two package solvent-borne, two package water-borne, one package water-borne and fluoropolymer polyurethanes. The comparison of the obtained FTIR-ATR results allowed determining markers helpful to discriminate specific PU subgroups by means of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. The goals of this paper are to provide to the conservation professionals a better understanding of the versatility and diversity of PU coatings and to facilitate the identification of the various types initially used by the artists.

Dynamic characteristics and seismic responses of painted sculptures of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes

Abstract The painted sculpture of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes is an important constituent of Dunhuang's cultural art. To study the painted sculpture's seismic safety, experimental specimens and numerical models were established on the basis of original geometry and internal constitutions. These specimens and models were made of wooden frame, reed-padded layer, coarse clay layer, and fine clay layer from internal to external. The dynamic characteristics of the painted sculptures were obtained by sweep frequency experiments. The numerical model can reflect dynamic performance of experimental specimens by comparing the results of sweep frequency experiment with numerical modal analysis. Based on the numerical results, the responses of the painted sculptures were analyzed from the perspectives of stress, displacement, and acceleration, evaluating the painted sculptures’ responses to seismic activity at three levels expected for the Dunhuang area, and finding the regions of easily damaged. The results show that there is a risk of damage to painted sculptures, though the displacement responses are small under the earthquakes with PGA = 0.20 g.

Coat of arms: Dovetailing the needs of outdoor sculpture and military assets to develop more durable and adaptable paint systems

The requirements for paints used on outdoor sculpture and military vehicles are similar: overall protection for the underlying substrate, and the ability to withstand prolonged outdoor exposure and recurring physical contact. Aesthetic requirements are different but stringent for both categories of coatings and include maintaining appearance over time. Building on prior work undertaken by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) Army Research Laboratory (ARL) to modify military coating systems into a matte black paint suitable for outdoor sculpture, a long-term interdisciplinary collaboration is under way between the ARL, the Getty Conservation Institute, Mack Art Conservation, and NCP Coatings, that aims to develop and evaluate a wider range of robust paint systems with novel attributes for both the DoD and outdoor painted sculptures. For the latter, this includes coatings with a broader range of gloss, formulated with a much more varied palette. New low-gloss coatings used on military assets were used to paint sculptures by Alexander Calder, Tony Smith, and Louise Nevelson, designed to an aesthetic standard based on approved colour and gloss levels by the relevant artists’ foundations and estates, and formulated to enhance durability. These new coatings offer the ability to match or meet a range of artists’ aesthetic preferences, and to use a variety of polymeric flattening agents to control gloss levels, reduce marring, and eliminate volatile and hazardous pollutants. The use of low molecular weight (LMW) resins provides 4–8 hour pot life to assist in the application process. Compared to current resins, the LMW systems reduce organic solvent levels, are low viscosity, and permit far easier application. In addition, the replacement of typical pigments with low solar absorbing (LSA) pigmentation provides higher reflection which ‘shields’ the resin/binder system and reduces degradation. A particular advantage to conservators from this collaboration is that the coatings on DoD assets provide a convenient indicator of the paint's performance and durability. The outcome will be a unique coating system to provide enhanced durability and maintain the original coating properties for a period of 6–10 years.

Spanish Religious Imagery and Post-Tridentine Theory

Post-Tridentine decrees and manuals on the ministry of preaching intensified the visuality of discourse in order to combat Reformation iconoclasm. As a result, correlations between rhetoric and imagery were not limited to speculation among theologians, but had real consequences for the public who listened to sermons and/or contemplated religious images. Just as sacred subject matter conferred upon preaching a status superior to profane oratory, Paleotti or Pacheco, amongst others, defended the nobility of visual arts because of the subjects they represented, notably those with religious themes.In Spain, a particular consequence of the querelle between the intrinsic quality of an artwork, bound to its mimetic capacity, and an artwork’s persuasive efficacy, was the necessity to sort out the comparison (paragone) between painting and polychrome sculpture. This latter art form was circumscribed by the jurisdiction of a mature corpus of ecclesiastical theory on the image, which attempted to prevent idolatrous abuses and immoderate iconic veneration. On the one hand, Counter-Reformation theology sought to reduce the work’s impact on irrational sensibility; on the other hand, it urged ‘image-makers’ to move the spirit and elevate piety, whilst simultaneously avoiding the undesirable secondary effects of awkward or lascivious images. By interacting with altarpieces and individual sculptures to make the sermon almost visible, Spanish preachers would reconcile delectare with docere and movere, while shaking up their audiences with the aid of visual imagery.

4D Visualization of Painted Sculpture and Murals

Abstract. Most cultural heritage applications address visualization with using various media or platforms: desktop-based multimedia presentations, museum kiosks, or videos produced with computer animation. However, these techniques can not directly reveal or show the course that the colorful surface of painted sculpture and murals becomes faint along with the change of the climate and time. Most current techniques just preserve the current appearance and disseminate the current situation of the painted sculpture and murals. The course how these forms of cultural heritage change along the time has not been visualized. In this paper we developed an approach to modelling of painted sculpture and murals that has undergone changes over the years. Different hypotheses has also be given if there is uncertainty. A painted sculpture of Mogao Grottoes is used to demonstate this approach.