Assessment Of Pain In Horses Research Articles

Time budgets and weight shifting as indicators of pain in hospitalized horses.

Pain assessment in horses presents a significant challenge due to their nonverbal nature and their tendency to conceal signs of discomfort in the presence of potential threats, including humans. Therefore, this study aimed to identify pain-associated behaviors amenable to automated AI-based detection in video recordings. Additionally, it sought to determine correlations between pain intensity and behavioral and postural parameters by analyzing factors such as time budgets, weight shifting, and unstable resting. The ultimate goal is to facilitate the development of AI-based quantitative tools for pain assessment in horses. A cohort of 20 horses (mean age 15 ± 8) admitted to a university equine hospital underwent 24-h video recording. Behaviors were manually scored and retrospectively analyzed using Loopy® software. Three pain groups were established based on the Pain Score Vetmeduni Vienna : pain-free (P0), mild to moderate pain (P1), and severe pain (P2). Weight shifting emerged as a reliable indicator for discriminating between painful and pain-free horses, with significant differences observed between pain groups (p < 0.001) and before and after administration of analgesia. Additionally, severely painful horses (P2 group) exhibited lower frequencies of feeding and resting standing per hour compared to pain-free horses, while displaying a higher frequency of unstable resting per hour. The significant differences observed in these parameters between pain groups offer promising prospects for AI-based analysis and automated pain assessment in equine medicine. Further investigation is imperative to establish precise thresholds. Leveraging such technology has the potential to enable more effective pain detection and management in horses, ultimately enhancing welfare and informing clinical decision-making in equine medicine.

Predictive modeling toward refinement of behavior-based pain assessment in horses

After 25 years of studies on methodologies for behavioral assessment of equine pain, the Unesp-Botucatu Horse Acute Pain Scale (UHAPS) and the Orthopedic Composite Pain Scale (CPS) were recently considered suboptimal instruments to assess pain in hospitalized horses. However, the combination of the two instruments has never been examined. The objective was to investigate whether the merging, mining, and weighting of UHAPS and CPS behavioral items in a single instrument using a predictive model could improve the capacity to diagnose pain in horses. A previously video-collected behavioral database of 42 horses admitted to three different hospitals for orthopedic or soft tissue surgery was used. Multilevel binomial logistic regression models were used to merge, mine, and weight the behaviors of both instruments. The classification quality between the model and the instruments was compared by the area under the curve (AUC) and its 95% confidence interval. The short model containing 25% of the behaviors of the two instruments showed a higher AUC (98.64 [98.16 – 99.12]; p < 0.0001) than the UHAPS (84.63 [82.08 – 87.18]) and CPS (88.62 [86.56 – 90.66]), independently. We conclude that merging, mining, and weighting the UHAPS and CPS behavior items into a single predictive model appears to be a promising strategy to improve pain diagnostic skill and promote equine welfare.

Pain severity scores for common equine disorders as provided by horse owners and equine veterinarians.

Understanding factors influencing assessment of pain in horses will facilitate communication between veterinarians and horse owners. To compare estimates of pain experienced by horses as provided by veterinarians and horse owners and to determine factors associated with individuals who perceive horses to be experiencing extreme pain or minimal pain. Cross-sectional study. Internet-based questionnaires for horse owners and veterinarians included items related to recognition of pain in horses, estimated degree of pain experienced by horses, and demographic information. Variables associated with perception of a high or low degree of pain were investigated using logistic regression analyses. Final data sets included responses from 553 horse owners and 263 veterinarians. Pain scores varied widely and differences in median scores from horse owners and veterinarians were small. Horse owners providing high pain ratings were more likely to have <10 horses (odds ratio [OR]=2.0, 95% CI=1.1-3.5) and to not have a college degree (OR=1.5, 95% CI=1.0-2.2). Those providing low pain ratings were less likely to own <10 horses (OR=0.6, 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.4-0.9). Veterinarians providing high pain ratings were more likely to be employed in a mixed animal practice (OR=2.8, 95% CI=1.3-5.9) and to lack board-certification in a veterinary specialty (OR=2.1, 95% CI=1.1-4.2). Veterinarians providing low pain ratings were more likely to be male (OR=2.4, 95% CI=1.3-4.2). The respondent population may be biased because of the method of questionnaire distribution and associated sampling bias. Respondents were primarily from the United States. Assessments of the degree of pain horses are experiencing vary widely among horse owners and equine veterinarians.

Pain assessment in horses using automatic facial expression recognition through deep learning-based modeling.

The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate a machine vision algorithm to assess the pain level in horses, using an automatic computational classifier based on the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) and trained by machine learning method. The use of the Horse Grimace Scale is dependent on a human observer, who most of the time does not have availability to evaluate the animal for long periods and must also be well trained in order to apply the evaluation system correctly. In addition, even with adequate training, the presence of an unknown person near an animal in pain can result in behavioral changes, making the evaluation more complex. As a possible solution, the automatic video-imaging system will be able to monitor pain responses in horses more accurately and in real-time, and thus allow an earlier diagnosis and more efficient treatment for the affected animals. This study is based on assessment of facial expressions of 7 horses that underwent castration, collected through a video system positioned on the top of the feeder station, capturing images at 4 distinct timepoints daily for two days before and four days after surgical castration. A labeling process was applied to build a pain facial image database and machine learning methods were used to train the computational pain classifier. The machine vision algorithm was developed through the training of a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) that resulted in an overall accuracy of 75.8% while classifying pain on three levels: not present, moderately present, and obviously present. While classifying between two categories (pain not present and pain present) the overall accuracy reached 88.3%. Although there are some improvements to be made in order to use the system in a daily routine, the model appears promising and capable of measuring pain on images of horses automatically through facial expressions, collected from video images.

Towards an improved pain assessment in castrated horses using facial expressions (HGS) and circulating miRNAs.

Pain in horses is an emergent welfare concern, and its assessment represents a challenge for equine clinicians. This study aimed at improving pain assessment in horses through a convergent validation of existing tools: we investigated whether an effective analgesic treatment influences the horse grimace scale (HGS) and the concentration of specific circulating microRNAs (miRNAs). Eleven stallions underwent routine surgical castration under general anaesthesia. They were divided into two analgesic treatment groups: castration with the administration of preoperative flunixin and castration with preoperative flunixin plus a local injection of mepivacaine into the spermatic cords. HGS and levels of seven circulating miRNAs were evaluated pre-, 8 and 20 hours post-procedure. Compared to pre-castration, HGS, miR-126-5p, miR-145 and miR-let7e increased significantly in horses receiving flunixin at 8 hours post-castration (Friedman test, p<0.05). Both behavioural and molecular changes occurred in horses receiving flunixin only, confirming that the addition of local mepivacaine is an effective analgesic treatment. Combining the use of HGS and circulating miRNAs, particularly miR-145, could be meaningful to monitor acute pain conditions in horses. Our results further validate the HGS as a method to assess acute pain in horses and point out miR-145 as a promising biomarker to identify pain.

Objective Assessment of Acute Pain in Foals Using a Facial Expression-Based Pain Scale.

Simple SummaryResearch has shown that objective assessment of pain in horses can be performed by subjectively scoring facial expressions. So far, no studies have been conducted to develop a pain measuring tool for the assessment of pain in foals. In other species like pigs and sheep, facial expressions have been shown to be good indicators of pain in neonatal animals. In this study, a pain scale that is already available for mature horses (EQUUS-FAP: Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain) was adapted to measure different types of acute pain in neonatal and older foals with acute pain based on facial expressions. The scale was based on a pain scale that has been shown to be useful in mature horses with various types of acute pain (colic, orthopaedic, and head-related pain). This pain scale was tested in 20 patients with different types of acute pain (colic, laminitis, postoperative pain) and 39 healthy control animals. The authors found that the EQUUS-FAP FOAL (Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain in Foals) is a reproducible pain scale that can be used to assess pain in neonatal and older foals.Pain assessment is very important for monitoring welfare and quality of life in horses. To date, no studies have described pain scales for objective assessment of pain in foals. Studies in other species have shown that facial expression can be used in neonatal animals for objective assessment of acute pain. The aim of the current study was to adapt a facial expression-based pain scale for assessment of acute pain in mature horses for valid pain assessment in foals. The scale was applied to fifty-nine foals (20 patients and 39 healthy controls); animals were assessed from video recordings (30–60 s) by 3 observers, who were blinded for the condition of the animals. Patients were diagnosed with acute health problems by means of clinical examination and additional diagnostic procedures. EQUUS-FAP FOAL (Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain in Foals) showed good inter- and intra-observer reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.95 and 0.98, p < 0.001). Patients had significantly higher pain scores compared to controls (p < 0.001) and the pain scores decreased after treatment with NSAIDs (meloxicam or flunixin meglumine IV) (p < 0.05). Our results indicate that a facial expression-based pain scale could be useful for the assessment of acute pain in foals. Further studies are needed to validate this pain scale.

How contributes the measurement of heart rate variability in pain assessment in horses?

How contributes the measurement of heart rate variability in pain assessment in horses?

Pain assessment in horses after orthopaedic surgery and with orthopaedic trauma

Objective pain assessment is important to guide and tailor therapy in clinical practice. This study describes the clinical applicability and validity of two pain scales, the Composite Pain Scale (CPS) and the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP) in horses with orthopaedic trauma or after orthopaedic surgery. A cohort follow-up study was performed using 77 adult horses (n=43 with orthopaedic trauma or injury; n=34 controls). Composite and facial expression-based pain scores were assessed by direct observations of pairs of two independent observers. All horses were assessed at arrival, and on the first and second day after arrival or after surgery.Both CPS and EQUUS-FAP scores demonstrated high inter-observer reliability (Crohnbach’s alpha=0.97 for CPS; Crohnbach’s alpha=0.93 for EQUUS-FAP; P<0.001), with low bias (0.07 and −0.08 respectively) and limits of agreement of −1.9 to 1.9 for CPS and −1.9 to 1.9 for EQUUS-FAP. Both CPS and EQUUS-FAP scores showed significant differences between control horses and orthopaedic cases (P<0.001). Trauma cases had significantly higher pain scores compared to postoperative cases for both CPS (P<0.05) and for EQUUS-FAP (P<0.01) and both pain scores significantly decreased after nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) administration. In accordance with the findings in other types of equine pain, the CPS and FAP proved useful and valid for objective and repeatable assessment of pain in horses with orthopaedic trauma or after orthopaedic surgery. This can further aid treatment of horses in clinical practice and might improve equine welfare.

Behavioural assessment of pain in horses and donkeys: application to clinical practice and future studies

Equine Veterinary JournalVolume 37, Issue 6 p. 565-575 Behavioural assessment of pain in horses and donkeys: application to clinical practice and future studies F. H. ASHLEY, Corresponding Author F. H. ASHLEY Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.Search for more papers by this authorA. E. WATERMAN-PEARSON, A. E. WATERMAN-PEARSON Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.Search for more papers by this authorH. R. WHAY, H. R. WHAY Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.Search for more papers by this author F. H. ASHLEY, Corresponding Author F. H. ASHLEY Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.Search for more papers by this authorA. E. WATERMAN-PEARSON, A. E. WATERMAN-PEARSON Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.Search for more papers by this authorH. R. WHAY, H. R. WHAY Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.Search for more papers by this author First published: 05 January 2010 https://doi.org/10.2746/042516405775314826Citations: 158AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume37, Issue6November 2005Pages 565-575 RelatedInformation

Pain: From Diagnosis to Effective Treatment

Managing pain effectively is one of the most important tasks that clinical veterinarians perform on a daily basis. This requires accurate assessing and grading of perioperative or posttraumatic pain followed by effective treatment. Commonly, veterinarians rely on the interpretation of physiological indices such as heart and respiratory rates, and, in case of musculoskeletal pain, on lameness evaluation. However, accurate assessment of pain in horses is complicated, not only because there are as many types of pain as there are responses to injuries, but also because criteria used to assess pain are often confounded by other factors. More recent studies suggest that subjective and objective assessment of species-specific pain behaviors should become an integral part of pain evaluation also in the horse, and that physiological and behavioral data combined are more useful than physiological measures alone to assess pain and the response to treatment in an individual animal. Pain scoring systems have recently been adapted to the horse and may prove useful in judging progress and response to treatment during the perioperative period. Effective pain therapy is best accomplished by applying a multi-modal or balanced analgesia concept that involves the combination of drugs with different pharmacological mechanisms of action and different target sites within the nociceptive system. Balanced analgesia may also include complementary modalities of pain treatment, such as acupuncture or chiropractic manipulations, especially when dealing with conditions of chronic pain.

NSAIDs

Objective pain assessment is important to guide and tailor therapy in clinical practice. This study describes the clinical applicability and validity of two pain scales, the Composite Pain Scale (CPS) and the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP) in horses with orthopaedic trauma or after orthopaedic surgery. A cohort follow-up study was performed using 77 adult horses (n = 43 with orthopaedic trauma or injury; n = 34 controls). Composite and facial expression-based pain scores were assessed by direct observations of pairs of two independent observers. All horses were assessed at arrival, and on the first and second day after arrival or after surgery.Both CPS and EQUUS-FAP scores demonstrated high inter-observer reliability (Crohnbach’s alpha = 0.97 for CPS; Crohnbach’s alpha = 0.93 for EQUUS-FAP; P < 0.001), with low bias (0.07 and −0.08 respectively) and limits of agreement of −1.9 to 1.9 for CPS and −1.9 to 1.9 for EQUUS-FAP. Both CPS and EQUUS-FAP scores showed significant differences between control horses and orthopaedic cases (P < 0.001). Trauma cases had significantly higher pain scores compared to postoperative cases for both CPS (P < 0.05) and for EQUUS-FAP (P < 0.01) and both pain scores significantly decreased after nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) administration. In accordance with the findings in other types of equine pain, the CPS and FAP proved useful and valid for objective and repeatable assessment of pain in horses with orthopaedic trauma or after orthopaedic surgery. This can further aid treatment of horses in clinical practice and might improve equine welfare.