Paddy Fields In Taiwan Research Articles

Deep Learning Approach for Paddy Field Detection Using Labeled Aerial Images: The Case of Detecting and Staging Paddy Fields in Central and Southern Taiwan

Detecting and mapping paddy fields in Taiwan’s agriculture is crucial for managing agricultural production, predicting yields, and assessing damages. Although researchers at the Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute currently use site surveys to identify rice planting areas, this method is time-consuming. This study aimed to determine the optimal band combinations and vegetation index for accurately detecting paddy fields during various phenological stages. Additionally, the Mask RCNN instance segmentation model in the ArcGIS Pro software was employed to enhance the effectiveness of detecting and segmenting paddy fields in aerial images. This study utilized aerial images collected from 2018 to 2019 covering Changhua, Yunlin, Chiayi, and Tainan in central and southern Taiwan, with a label file comprising four categories of rice growing, ripening, harvested stage, and other crops. To create different image datasets, the image pre-processing stage involved modifying band information using different vegetation indices, including NDVI, CMFI, DVI, RVI, and GRVI. The resolution of the training image chips was cropped to 550 by 550 pixels. After the model training process, the study found that the ResNet-50 backbone performed better than the ResNet-101, and the RGB + DVI image dataset achieved the highest mean average precision of 74.01%. In addition, the model trained on the RGB + CMFI image dataset was recommended for detecting paddy fields in the rice growing stage, RGB + NIR for the rice ripening stage, and RGB + GRVI for the rice harvested stage. These models exhibit Dice coefficients of 79.59%, 89.71%, and 87.94%, respectively. The detection and segmentation results can improve the efficiency of rice production management by using different band combinations according to different rice phenological stages. Furthermore, this method can be applied to large-scale detection of other crops, improving land use survey efficiency and reducing the burden on researchers.

Silicon availability in relation to soil properties in Inceptisols on uncultivated lands and paddy fields in Taiwan

Silicon (Si), which mainly exists in soils as orthosilicic acid (H4SiO4), is beneficial for rice growth. In total, 17 Inceptisols soil profiles, 4 from uncultivated lands and 13 from paddy fields derived from felsic to ultramafic parent materials were collected for the extraction of available Si from horizon soil samples by using an acetate buffer solution. The aim of this work was to illustrate the relationship between extractable Si and general soil properties for predicting the availability of Si for rice growth. The means of available Si in the studied Inceptisols on the uncultivated lands and paddy fields were 244 mg kg−1 and 114 mg kg−1, respectively. The amount of available Si increased from the surface to subsurface soils in the soils on the uncultivated lands, whereas the available Si was irregular along with depth in the paddy soils. The amount of available Si was linearly and significantly (p < 0.001) correlated with clay and dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate extractable iron oxides (Fed) in all soils. The amount of available Si increased with an increase in pH in the soils from the uncultivated lands. However, a poor correlation was observed between pH and available Si in the paddy soils because labile Si was affected by human activities, such as liming and flooding, especially for surface soils. Nevertheless, the available Si was successfully estimated using crystalline iron oxides in the soils on the uncultivated lands; however, in the paddy soils, clay and organic carbon were used in the multi-regression model to estimate the amount of available Si.

Methylobacterium oryzihabitans sp. nov., isolated from water sampled from a rice paddy field.

Strain TER-1T was isolated from water sampled from a rice paddy field in Taiwan. Cells were Gram-negative, aerobic, motile, rod-shaped and formed pink-coloured colonies. Optimal growth occurred at 25-30 °C, pH 6-7 and in the presence of 0.5 % NaCl. Strain TER-1T could grow on C1 compounds such as methanol, formic acid, methylamine and dimethylamine as sole carbon source, and carry methanol dehydrogenase gene, which supports its methylotrophic metabolism. The results of phylogenetic analyses based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence, methanol dehydrogenase gene sequence and coding sequences of 92 protein clusters indicated that strain TER-1T formed a phylogenetic lineage in the genus Methylobacterium. Strain TER-1T was most closely related to Methylobacterium isbiliense AR24T with 96.8 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity. Strain TER-1T showed 77.1-82.8 % average nucleotide identity and 16.4-20.2 % digital DNA-DNA hybridization identity with the strains of other Methylobacterium species. The major fatty acid of strain TER-1T was C18 : 1ω7c. The predominant hydroxy fatty acid was C18 : 0 3-OH. The polar lipid profile consisted of a mixture of phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine and two uncharacterized lipids. The only isoprenoid quinone was Q-10. The genomic DNA G+C content of strain TER-1T was 71.9 mol%. On the basis of phenotypic and genotypic properties and phylogenetic inference, strain TER-1T should be classified in a novel species of the genus Methylobacterium, for which the name Methylobacterium oryzihabitans sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is TER-1T (=BCRC 81157T=LMG 30931T=KCTC 62864T).

Environmental and Health Risks of Heavy Metals in Farmland Soils of Drinking Water Protection Areas and a Contaminated Paddy Field in Taiwan

This study assessed heavy metal contents and their mobility, bioaccessibility, environmental risk, and health effects in the farmland soils of Drinking Water Source Quality Protection (DWSQP) areas contaminated by livestock manure and a paddy field contaminated by co-use of irrigation and drainage canals in Taiwan. The risk assessment code (RAC) and synthesis toxicity index (STI) for the soils were obtained. The potential health effects caused from soil direct ingestion by hand-to-mouth activity and dermal contact frequently occurring to farmers were further evaluated. The Cu, Zn, and Cr levels in DWSQP areas and the Changhwa (CH) paddy field exceeded the standards promulgated by Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (EPA). Nevertheless, RAC in DWSQP areas was in low risk levels. In contrast, RAC from Cu and Zn in CH paddy soils was in medium levels. Non-carcinogenic risks for farmers based on the total and bioaccessible metals in DWSQP areas and CH soils were all &lt;1. However, carcinogenic risks based on bioaccessible Cr still exceeded 10−6 in several soils, indicating that the potential impacts on environmental and human health due to direct and indirect exposures to these contaminated soils should be concerned.

Efficacy of cheap amendments for stabilizing trace elements in contaminated paddy fields

In situ stabilization of trace elements by adding cheap amendments is an emerging technology for large-scale soil remediation. Various amendments have been examined well in the literature, but related have focused predominantly on short-term laboratory scale incubation or pot experiments. This study applied dolomitic lime at 40 ton ha−1, oyster shell (OS) at 80 ton ha−1, and sugarcane bagasse compost (SC) at 60 ton ha−1 to a paddy field in Taiwan for two rice (Oryza sativa L.) cropping seasons. The aims of study were to gain an understanding of the bioavailable concentrations of Cr, Ni, Cu, and Zn in the amended soil and the metal uptake of rice for practical amendment use in field-scale remediation of contaminated soils. The treatments of lime and OS significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the 0.1 N HCl–extractable metals in the soil. The increase in soil pH was the key factor in decreasing the bioavailable pool of metals in the soil by using lime and OS. The concentrations of Cu, Zn, and Ni in the brown rice were substantially reduced only through the addition of OS, and thus OS met the requirement of being a cheap, locally available, and environmentally compatible amendment for field-scale soil remediation. The translocation of Cr in rice plants is heavily restricted, and thus no significant differences in Cr uptake by rice grain were observed between the different amendment treatments. However, SC is not recommended as an immobilization agent because it caused a pH decrease in the amended soil.

Partition of geogenic nickel in paddy soils derived from serpentinites

Serpentinitic soils contain high concentrations of geogenic Ni. During serpentinitic mineral weathering, the Ni released from soils into ecosystems could be a source of non-anthropogenic metal contamination. In this study, soil samples were collected from two pedons in paddy fields in Taiwan and Japan; these samples were used to explore the profile distribution of total and labile Ni, demonstrating the contribution of Ni-bearing Fe and Mn oxides to the Ni partition in these soils. Serpentine and chlorite were the dominant primary minerals; thus, the soils reflected serpentinitic characteristics and exhibited high background concentrations of Ni. The total Ni content ranged from 240 to 520 mg kg−1. Repeated redox and leaching cycles caused the redistribution of Ni in the paddy soils. The diethylenetriamine pentaacetate (DTPA)-extractable Ni, an availability index of Ni, increased as the soil depth decreased in the two pedons. An additional pool of labile Ni was present in the soils because the Ni concentration determined using a 0.1 N HCl extraction was much higher than was that determined using the DTPA extraction. Fe and Mn oxides were closely related to the labile Ni in these paddy soils. However, Ni was predominantly retained by amorphous and crystalline Fe oxides rather than Mn oxides. Shortening the flooded duration of paddy field is required to reduce the solubility of Ni because that the labile Ni and redox-sensitive Fe oxides can affect both the paddy soils and environment when Ni is released into the soil solution and becomes bioavailable under reducing conditions.

Promoting Effects of a Single &lt;i&gt;Rhodopseudomonas palustris&lt;/i&gt; Inoculant on Plant Growth by &lt;i&gt;Brassica rapa chinensis&lt;/i&gt; under Low Fertilizer Input

Several Rhodopseudomonas palustris strains have been isolated from rice paddy fields in Taiwan by combining the Winogradsky column method and molecular marker detection. These isolates were initially screened by employing seed germination and seedling vigor assays to evaluate their potential as inoculants. To fulfill the demand in the present farming system for reducing the application of chemical fertilizers, we assessed the plant growth-promoting effects of the R. palustris YSC3, YSC4, and PS3 inoculants on Brassica rapa chinensis (Chinese cabbage) cultivated under a half quantity of fertilizer. The results obtained showed that supplementation with approximately 4.0×106 CFU g−1 soil of the PS3 inoculant at half the amount of fertilizer consistently produced the same plant growth potential as 100% fertility, and also increased the nitrogen use efficiency of the applied fertilizer nutrients. Furthermore, we noted that the plant growth-promotion rate elicited by PS3 was markedly higher with old seeds than with new seeds, suggesting it has the potential to boost the development of seedlings that were germinated from carry-over seeds of poor quality. These beneficial traits suggest that the PS3 isolate may serve as a potential PGPR inoculant for integrated nutrient management in agriculture.

Environmental Multifunctionality of Paddy Fields in Taiwan- A Conjunction Evaluation Method of Contingent Valuation Method and Analytic Network Procedures

This study uses the benefit and value assessment method, in conjunction with a Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Analytic Network Procedures (ANP), through the use of questionnaires, to assess the preference structure and relative weight scales that are assigned to the multifunctionality function and production output benefits that are derived from paddy fields. The monetary benefits associated with the multifunctionality of paddy fields are as below:1) Benefits from production are NT$20.97 (NT$1 about US$0.03385) (US$0.71), from 1kg of rice, 2) Benefits to food safety and reliance are NT$36.38 (US$1.23), from 1kg of rice, 3) Benefits to cultural heritage and community development are NT$13.51 (US$0.46), from 1kg of rice, 4) Benefits to recreation and landscape are NT$12.34(US$0.42), from 1kg of rice, and 5) Benefits to environmental conservation are NT$25.4(US$0.86), from 1kg of rice. The ratio of nonmarket/rice production is 4.18. The monetary benefits constitute the gross domestic product (GDP), for rice production. These benefits from all five categories constitute the green gross domestic product (Green GDP), for rice production. This study calculated the Green GDP, for rice production, which included the market price of rice production and the non-market value of the multifunctionality of paddy fields, which generated NT$158 billion (US$5.3483 billion), in 2008. The ratio of rice production output to real production output, as defined by this study, obtained a result close to 1(0.97), showing that the benefit assessment for market goods and non-market goods, in conjunction with ANP and CVM, is a reliable assessment method, which should be promoted in the future.

Impacts of the herbicide butachlor on the larvae of a paddy field breeding frog (Fejervarya limnocharis) in subtropical Taiwan

Butachlor is the most commonly used herbicide on paddy fields in Taiwan and throughout Southeast Asia. Since paddy fields provide habitat for pond breeding amphibians, we examined growth, development, time to metamorphosis, and survival of alpine cricket frog tadpoles (Fejervarya limnocharis) exposed to environmentally realistic concentrations of butachlor. We documented negative impacts of butachlor on survival, development, and time to metamorphosis, but not on tadpole growth. The 96 h LC(50) for tadpoles was 0.87 mg/l, much lower than the 4.8 mg/l recommended dosage for application to paddy fields. Even given the rapid breakdown of butachlor, tadpoles would be exposed to concentrations in excess of their 96 h LC(50) for an estimated 126 h. We also documented DNA damage (genotoxicity) in tadpoles exposed to butachlor at concentrations an order of magnitude less than the 4.8 mg/l recommended application rate. We did not find that butachlor depressed cholinesterase activity of tadpoles, unlike most organophosphorus insecticides. We conclude that butachlor is likely to have widespread negative impacts on amphibians occupying paddy fields with traditional herbicide application.

Comparative analysis of temporal changes of multifunctionality benefit of two major rice paddy plains in Taiwan

Recently, free trade of farm land, changes of agricultural policy and global climate changes have resulted a significant reduction of rice planting area and the multifunctionality values of paddy field in Taiwan. This study aims to evaluate the temporal changes of multifunctionality benefit of two major rice paddy plains in Taiwan. The main agricultural production regions of the Chou-Shui river alluvial fan and Ping-Tung plain are selected for the comparative study. The replacement method is adopted to quantify the multifunctionality of the paddy field. The results show that percentage of cultivated paddy to the total paddy gradually decreases from 92 to 80% and the external value remains from 572,000 to 668,000 NT$/ha in the Chou-Shui river alluvial fan. Whereas, the percentage of area of cultivated paddy to the total paddy markedly decreases from 37 to 23% from 1999 to 2006 and resulting the external values of paddy only ranges from 156,000 to 258,000 NT$/ha in the Ping-Tung plain. To maintain the sustainable agriculture in the paddy field, government needs to formulate incentive policy to conserve the paddy farming, promote, and transmit the general understanding of the environmental and living-hood multifunctionality values to the people.

Characterization of soil heavy metal pools in paddy fields in Taiwan: chemical extraction and solid-solution partitioning

Characterization of soil heavy metal pools in paddy fields in Taiwan: chemical extraction and solid-solution partitioning

Estimation of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from paddy fields in Taiwan

To investigate the greenhouse gases emissions from paddy fields, methane and nitrous oxide emissions were estimated with the local measurement and the IPCC method during 1990–2006 in Taiwan. Annual methane emission ranged from 9001 to 14,980 ton in the first crop season for 135,314–242,298 ha of paddy fields, and it was between 16,412 and 35,208 ton for 101,710–211,968 ha in the second crop season with the local measurement for intermittent irrigation. The value ranged from 31,122 to 55,729 ton of methane emission in the first crop season, and it was between 29,493 and 61,471 ton in the second crop season with the IPCC guideline for continuous flooding. Annual nitrous oxide emission from paddy fields was between 371 and 728 ton in the first crop season, and the value ranged from 163 to 365 ton in the second crop season with the local measurement. Methane emission from paddy fields in Taiwan for intermittent irrigation was only 26.72–28.92%, 55.65–57.32% and 41.19–43.10% with the IPCC guidelines for continuous flooding and mean temperature of transplanting stage in the first crop, the second crop and total paddy fields, respectively. The values were 53.44–57.84%, 111.29–114.55% and 82.38–86.20% with the IPCC guidelines for single aeration and mean temperature of transplanting stage, respectively; and the values were 133.60–144.61%, 282.56–286.62% and 205.96–215.49% with the IPCC guidelines for multiple aeration and mean temperature of transplanting stage, respectively. Intermittent irrigation in paddy fields reduces methane emission significantly; appropriate application of nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation in paddy fields also decreases nitrous oxide emission.

Effects of food consumption patterns on paddy field use in Taiwan

Societal metabolism and land use are significant and interrelated issues, and play a role in sustainable development. How a society's metabolism relates to local land use is typically affected by the particular context of the society under study, which is usually shaped by many factors, including economic, ecological, cultural, technological, and political factors. This study examines the effects of changes in food consumption patterns – decreasing per capita consumption of rice and increasing per capita consumption of wheat flour and meat – on the use of paddy fields in Taiwan. Although rice is grown domestically, wheat, which is a substitute for rice, is mainly imported. Moreover, the domestic livestock industry depends heavily on imported crops for low-cost feed. Accordingly, dietary changes have significantly decreased the demand for local paddy fields to grow crops. Additionally, the diversion of paddy fields to grow forage crops, which has been promoted by the Taiwanese government by guaranteeing prices for feed maize for 14 years, was discouraged when Taiwan joined the World Trade Organization in 2002, as Taiwan was required at that time to reduce by 20% its aggregate measure of support. The presented Taiwan case provides an empirical example of how a change in input characteristics (supply sources in a spatial dimension) of societal metabolism can, together with other factors, significantly affect local paddy fields, and discusses the underlying implications for sustainable development.

Environmental multifunctionality of paddy fields in Taiwan: an application of contingent valuation method

This paper aims to evaluate the social value of the environmental multifunctionality of paddy fields in Taiwan; through individual consumers’ direct expressions of their perceived benefit and to provide the empirical data thus collected for the reference of the decision makers in the government. This study use contingent valuation method (CVM) to evaluates the value of environmental multifunctionality of paddy fields from the purposefully selected pool of samples in Taiwan. The result shows if judged by the threat that free trade poses to the retention of arable land, most respondents give a value of 114 NT/household/month to 115 NT/household/month for 1% reduction of arable land to be restored to the existing level; and168 NT/household/month to 181 NT/household/month for a reduction rate of 4%. There are 7,394,758 households in Taiwan. The aggregating result is 10,116,028,944 NT/year to 10,204,766,040 NT/year for 1% reduction of arable land to be restored to the existing level; and 14,907,832,128 NT/year to 16,061,414,376 NT/year for a reduction rate of 4%.

Experiences of water transfer from the agricultural to the non-agricultural sector in Taiwan

Two type of water transfer have occurred in Taiwan, namely, regular and emergency transfers. According to the prevailing Water Law, water is permitted to transfer among water rights holders whenever they need and agree upon relevant compensation. As for the emergency transfer, in the event of extensive drought, every water user sector will suffer serious water shortages resulting in unavoidable economic losses. The Government should step in to perform emergency water transfer by suspending agricultural water rights a course of action considered to cause smaller losses even when an entire rice crop is abandoned, to minimize overall losses to the national macro economy. This study has examined two typical water transfer cases that were implemented in Taiwan. The first one involved the regular transfer of agricultural water from the Changhwa and Yunlin Irrigation Associations (IAs) to the industrial user Formosa Petrochemical Corporation (FPC). The second one involved the transfer of agricultural water from the Taoyuan, Shimen and Shinchu IAs to domestic and industrial uses during the period from 2002 to 2006 as an emergency transfer. From the perspective of water transfer options, Taiwanese case studies have demonstrated that an officially recognized marketing oriented water transfer mechanism has yet to be established. However, water transfer is still undertaken whenever necessary. In this respect, regardless of the type of water transfer undertaken, water rights can only be suspended but not terminated. In spite of the types of water transfer, it is inevitable to affect the ecological and environmental functions. Therefore, further investigations with related topics should be broadly taken into account. Ecosystem services of paddy fields have attracted increasing recognition in the monsoon Asian countries. Currently, there is a research program collaborating with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) on the impact and influence induced by water transfer with a major concern on the ecosystem services of paddy fields in Taiwan.

Multifunctionality of paddy fields in Taiwan

Paddy rice is the staple food in Taiwan, where rice farming always plays an important role in agricultural activities. The paddy fields and irrigation activities hold diversified functions, such as production, eco-environmental and living-associated functions. This paper is to provide information regarding the potential magnitude and monetary value of seven functions of paddy fields in Taiwan, including flood mitigation, fostering water resources, preventing soil erosion, purifying water, cooling air temperature, refreshing atmosphere and recreation. For quantification of the above values, replacement cost method (RCM), contingent valuation method (CVM), and the travel cost method (TCM) are adopted. In addition, the ratio of monetary value and their rice production commodity value (R) was also estimated. The results indicated that the flood mitigation function had a monetary value of US$ 389 million each year, and the ratio to the rice production value R was estimated at 37%. Water resource fostering function was US$ 501 million and R at 47%; soil erosion reduction function was US$ 433 million and R at 41%; water quality purification function was US$ 3 million and R at 0.3%; cooling air temperature function was US$ 961 million and R at 91%; refreshing air function was US$ 196 million and R at 19%, health and recreation function was US$ 987 million and R at 93%, respectively. Due to the significant importance of these externalities, it is recommended that the government should properly take into account the multifunctionalities in policy making to ensure sustainable development of agriculture.

Local sustainable yield and embodied resources in ecological footprint analysis—a case study on the required paddy field in Taiwan

Since the 1990s, ecological footprint (EF) analysis has been employed to discuss two important dimensions of sustainable development, intra- and inter-generational equity, from the perspective of ecosystem appropriation. When examining the equality of resource use among generations in the EF analysis, sustainable yield plays a crucial role; however, its value is assumed to be the same as that of average industrial yield, which does not reflect differential productivity and its value can be much higher than the sustainable one through over-exploitation practices. The estimated EF, as well as ecological deficits, would be underestimated, from which false policy implications could be drawn. Through a review of the literature on the relationships between yield, soil quality, and farming practices, this paper suggests adopting a yield potential ranking system that was established by the government in Taiwan in 1991 through an 8-year field study. This ranking system served as a proxy for local sustainable yield in estimating the required paddy fields in Taiwan in 1996 under two scenarios. Scenario (I) concerned the required paddy fields for supporting the direct and indirect consumption of rice by Taiwan residents; Scenario (II) explored the additional area of paddy fields that would be needed when the food energy from cereals is provided exclusively by rice and the importing of rice is not possible. The results were then compared with the estimates when the average industrial yield of 1996 was used. A hybrid-units input–output modeling method was used to estimate the rice contained in manufactured products. The results of the scenario analysis shed light on the importance of preserving Taiwan's existing paddy fields for the sake of maintaining stable long-term food supply.

Evaluation of methane emissions from Taiwanese paddies

The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Methane is the most important because the warming effect of methane is 21 times greater than that of carbon dioxide. Methane emitted from rice paddy fields is a major source of atmospheric methane. In this work, a methane emission model (MEM), which integrates climate change, plant growth and degradation of soil organic matter, was applied to estimate the emission of methane from rice paddy fields in Taiwan. The estimated results indicate that much methane is emitted during the effective tillering and booting stages in the first crop season and during the transplanting stage in the second crop season in a year. Sensitivity analysis reveals that the temperature is the most important parameter that governs the methane emission rate. The order of the strengths of the effects of the other parameters is soil pH, soil water depth (SWD) and soil organic matter content. The masses of methane emitted from rice paddy fields of Taiwan in the first and second crop seasons are 28,507 and 350,231 tons, respectively. The amount of methane emitted during the second crop season is 12.5 times higher than that emitted in the first crop season. With a 12% reduction in planted area during the second crop season, methane emission could be reduced by 21%. In addition, removal of rice straw left from the first crop season and increasing the depth of flooding to 25 cm are also strategies that could help reduce annual emission by up to 18%.

APPLICATION OF DIFFUSIVE TANK MODEL IN DRAINAGE ANALYSIS OF PADDY FIELDS1

ABSTRACT: A diffusive tank model has been successfully applied to the simulation of runoff from paddy fields in Japan because it can well describe the features of local water flows. The main goal of the study is to evaluate the performance of the diffusive tank model with the calibrated parameters obtained in Jyau‐Shi to simulate discharge from paddy fields in two experimental catchments located in the areas of Shing‐Ying and Ta‐Liao, Southwestern Taiwan. The simulations were verified by comparing the model results with observed runoff data from the two experimental catchments. The model predicted the discharge from the paddy fields well. This indicates that the model with the calibrated parameters may be used in other paddy fields in Taiwan.

Potential benefits of increased application of water to paddy fields in Taiwan

AbstractThe potential benefits of increased application of water to paddy fields in Taiwan are investigated in this paper. A conceptual model is used to represent the hydrological system of the paddy field. A technique is presented to estimate the parameters of the model. Field experiments also are performed for parameter estimation and model verification. The simulated results are in good agreement with the observed during model verification. With parameters estimated from the field data, the model is used to simulate the effects of applying water beyond current practice. The simulation results show that the downward percolation increases when the irrigation water increases. However, the percolation reaches a capacity rate no matter how large the amount of water applied. This phenomenon results from the existence of a hard layer below the paddy field. The effects of raising the height of levees around paddy fields are also studied. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.