Package Bees Research Articles

Winter mortality, diversification, and self-sufficiency affect honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colony profit in Canada: a model of commercial Alberta beekeepers.

Canadian beekeepers faced widespread levels of high honey bee colony mortality over the winter of 2021/2022, with an average winter loss of 45%. To understand the economic impact of winter colony mortality in Canada and the beekeeping management strategies used to mitigate these losses, we develop a profit model of commercial beekeeping operations in Alberta, Canada. Our model shows that for operations engaging in commercial pollination as well as honey production (compared to honey production alone), per colony profit is higher and operations are better able to withstand fluctuations in exogenous variables such as prices and environmental factors affecting productivity including winter mortality rates. The results also suggest that beekeeping operations that replace winter colony losses with splits instead of package bees accrue higher per colony profit than those importing packages to replace losses. Further, operations that produce their own queens to use in their replacement splits, accrue even higher profit. Our results demonstrate that the profitability of beekeeping operations is dependent on several factors including winter mortality rates, colony replacement strategies, and the diversification of revenue sources. Beekeepers who are not as susceptible to price and risk fluctuations in international markets and imported bee risks accrue more consistently positive profits.

Combined effects of oxalic acid sublimation and brood breaks on Varroa mite (Varroa destructor) and deformed wing virus levels in newly established honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies

Annual losses of honey bee colonies are high in the United States, with losses often attributed to the effects of the ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor, and its associated viruses (e.g., Deformed Wing Virus, DWV). In the spring, beekeepers rely on package bees to replace lost colonies. However, these packages often come with high levels of mites and are treated with miticides upon installation. Oxalic acid (OA) is a popular miticide used in spring, but little is known about its long-term efficacy for mite control. On the other hand, natural behavior that helps with mite control is swarming, which results in a break in the production of brood in a colony. In this study, we investigated the effect of spring OA sublimation and summer swarming on colony health and productivity. We found that OA sublimation is an effective method to increase mite drop from the colony in the first three days after treatment. However, mite populations recovered quickly leading to high mite levels in the fall for colonies that did not swarm during the summer. OA applications had a marginally significant negative effect on honey yield. Mid-season swarming was correlated with lower levels of Varroa mites suggesting that implementing a brood break in the middle of the summer could play an important role in reducing mite populations for colonies originating from packages. However, the combination of OA applications to packages in the spring and summer brood break had a significant effect on reducing mite levels for colonies entering the winter. We conclude that treating packages with OA in the spring in combination with summer mite treatments are powerful tools for beekeepers to keep colonies with lower pest loads entering the winter.

Rapid identification of the invasive Small hive beetle (Aethina tumida) using LAMP.

Small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida is an invasive pest of managed honey bees and has invaded Europe from Africa. The main risk point identified for incursions of this pest into the UK is imports of package bees and queens. Surveillance of this pest, carried out by the National Bee Unit, involves monitoring imports of live bees and routine screening of sentinel apiaries around the UK through collection of hive debris for visual inspection of pests. Currently, no molecular methods are used for screening hive debris for this pest in the UK. A new invasion of this pest would likely occur at low levels and might present with partial specimens broken up in the hive or eggs from the beetle, difficult to identify by visual inspection. Therefore, we sought to develop a fast and sensitive method for detecting SHB in hive debris by developing a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay. The LAMP assay was able to detect the SHB in 19 to 25.37 min and did not cross-react with any non-target species tested. The assay was sensitive and could detect 12pg of DNA and it was able to detect less than 1 mg of tissue in a 30 g complex matrix of honey bee hive debris. The assay could successfully amplify from crude extracts of partial tissue specimens. This tool will allow rapid field screening of suspect beetle specimens and laboratory screening of hive debris for a notifiable exotic pest of honey bees. © 2020 Crown copyright. Pest Management Science © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

EVALUATION OF FLOOR COVERINGS FROM THE ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECT IN THE DESIGN STAGE

Measures to reduce the impact of the construction sector on the environment and human health need to be taken at the design stage of the facility and evaluate building materials and products from an ecological and economic aspect. For the research needs, a comparison of floor coverings at the design stage was made to assess their impact during the life cycle. The research uses the life cycle analysis (LCA), a methodology that is the basis for analyzing the impacts during the life cycle of the analyzed construction products. The research covers the life cycle stages from A1 to C4, according to the standard ISO EN 15978: 2011. The software package BEES, the National Institute of Standardization and Technology (NIST), the United States of America is used for the turn. Five types of floor coverings were analyzed, from the aspect of their impact on the environment and human health, but also from the economic point of view. The research has shown that in the design phase, using software packages can be managed with the quality of the environment, and the project design, and hence the quality of the facility. The research also points to the need for a national software package that can analyze construction products and materials. Their application would improve the national construction industry and favored materials that are environmentally and economically acceptable in relation to materials with unfavorable effects on the environment and human health.

Comparison of three methods to multiply honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies

In Canada, there is a growing need for additional honey bee colonies to satisfy the demand for pollination services and compensate for high winter colony mortality. The objective of our study was to compare methodologies that would be both better structured and adapted to producing new colonies in today’s beekeeping industry. Efficacy of three colony production techniques was compared at the Deschambault Research Center for Animal Sciences, Quebec: package bees, one brood frame, two brood frames. Experimental colonies were monitored from July 2014 to June 2015, and several parameters were measured to evaluate their strength and the presence of pathogens. Results showed no statistical difference in colony strength between methods. However, making nuclei from one brood frame offered the greatest multiplication potential and the most advantageous economically. This study also confirmed that nuclei production reduces swarming and varroa infestation levels in mother colonies.

Wing morphometry of Slovak lines of Apis mellifera carnica honeybee population

Received: 2015-11-02 | Accepted: 2015-11-10 | Available online: 2016-05-30 dx.doi.org/10.15414/afz.2016.19.02.41-44 Samples of honeybee workers and drones forewings from 16 hives belonging to various lines of Slovak Carniolan bee kept by queen breeders in Slovakia were taken in year 2013 to perform wing morphometry measurements. The Dawino, complex wing morphometry method, has been applied for workers samples and measurements of Cubital index for drones samples. Worker bees samples showed similarity to Carniolan bee standard from 50 to 84% in 15 cases, on sample was out of standard. Cubital index of drones samples comply with a carnica bee standard in 14 cases, 2 samples were out of the range. The future of use wing morphometry for detection of hybridization in A. m. carnica populations is discussed. Keywords: Apis mellifera carnica , workers, drones, wing morphometry, cubital index, Dawino References BOOKSTEIN, F. L. (1991) Morphometric tools for landmark data. Geometry and biology . New York: Cambridge University Press. BOUGA, M. et al. (2011) A review of methods for discrimination of honey bee populations as applied to European beekeeping. Journal of apicultural research, vol. 50, no.1, pp. 51-84. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3896/IBRA.1.50.1.06 CERMAK, K. and KASPAR, R. (2003) Morphometrical analysis and taxonometrical classification of honey bees by wing characters . [Online]. Retrieved September 2015 from doi: http://beedol.cz/dawino/DAWINO_prosp_EN.pdf DE LA RUA, P. et al. (2009). Biodiversity, conseravation and current threats to European honey bees. Apidologie , vol.40, no.3, pp. 263-284. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/apido/2009027 DUPRAW, E. J. (1965) Non-Linnean taxonomy and the systematics of honey bees. Systematic Zoology , vol. 14, no.1, pp. 1-24. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2411899 FERT, G. (1997). Breeding Queens: Production of Package Bees: Introduction to Instrumental Insemination . Argentan: OPIDA. 104 p. GARNERY, L. et al. (2004) Genetic diversity of European honeybees. First European Conference of Apidology, Udine 19-23 September , pp. 35. KOPERNICKY, M. and CHLEBO, R. (2004) Carniolan bees. In KADLECIK, O. et al. Endangered breeds of animals in Slovakia. Nitra: SPU, pp. 79-85 (in Slovak). MEIXNER, M. D. et al. (2013) Standard methods for characterising subspecies and ecotypes of Apis mellifera . Journal of Apicultural Research , vol. 52, no.4, pp. 1-28. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3896/IBRA.1.52.4.05 RUTTNER, F. (1988) Biogeography and taxonomy of honeybees, 1st ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-72649-1 SHEPPARD, W.S. et al. (2003) Apis mellifera pomonella , a new honey bee subspecies from Central Asia. Apidologie , vol. 34, no.4, pp. 367-375. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/apido: 2003037

Population growth of Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) in commercial honey bee colonies treated with beta plant acids.

Varroa (Varroa destuctor Anderson and Trueman) populations in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies might be kept at low levels by well-timed miticide applications. HopGuard® (HG) that contains beta plant acids as the active ingredient was used to reduce mite populations. Schedules for applications of the miticide that could maintain low mite levels were tested in hives started from either package bees or splits of larger colonies. The schedules were developed based on defined parameters for efficacy of the miticide and predictions of varroa population growth generated from a mathematical model of honey bee colony–varroa population dynamics. Colonies started from package bees and treated with HG in the package only or with subsequent HG treatments in the summer had 1.2–2.1 mites per 100 bees in August. Untreated controls averaged significantly more mites than treated colonies (3.3 mites per 100 bees). By October, mite populations ranged from 6.3 to 15.0 mites per 100 bees with the lowest mite numbers in colonies treated with HG in August. HG applications in colonies started from splits in April reduced mite populations to 0.12 mites per 100 bees. In September, the treated colonies had significantly fewer mites than the untreated controls. Subsequent HG applications in September that lasted for 3 weeks reduced mite populations to levels in November that were significantly lower than in colonies that were untreated or had an HG treatment that lasted for 1 week. The model accurately predicted colony population growth and varroa levels until the fall when varroa populations measured in colonies established from package bees or splits were much greater than predicted. Possible explanations for the differences between actual and predicted mite populations are discussed.

Demographics of the European Apicultural Industry

Over the last few years, many European and North American countries have reported a high rate of disorders (mortality, dwindling and disappearance) affecting honeybee colonies (Apis mellifera). Although beekeeping has become an increasingly professional activity in recent years, the beekeeping industry remains poorly documented in Europe. The European Union Reference Laboratory for Honeybee Health sent a detailed questionnaire to each Member State, in addition to Kosovo and Norway, to determine the demographics and state of their beekeeping industries. Based on data supplied by the National Reference Laboratory for honeybee diseases in each European country, a European database was created to describe the beekeeping industry including the number and types of beekeepers, operation size, industry production, and health (notifiable diseases, mortalities). The total number of beekeepers in Europe was estimated at 620 000. European honey production was evaluated at around 220 000 tons in 2010. The price of honey varied from 1.5 to 40 €/kg depending on the country and on the distribution network. The estimated colony winter mortality varied from 7 to 28% depending on the country and the origin of the data (institutional survey or beekeeping associations). This survey documents the high heterogeneity of the apicultural industry within the European Union. The high proportion of non-professional beekeepers and the small mean number of colonies per beekeeper were the only common characteristics at European level. The tremendous variation in European apicultural industries has implication for any comprehensive epidemiological or economic analysis of the industry. This variability needs to be taken into account for such analysis as well as for future policy development. The industry would be served if beekeeping registration was uniformly implemented across member states. Better information on the package bee and queen production would help in understanding the ability of the industry to replace lost honey bee stocks.

Treatment With Synthetic Brood Pheromone (SuperBoost) Enhances Honey Production and Improves Overwintering Survival of Package Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Colonies

We evaluated a year-long treatment regime testing synthetic, 10-component, honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), brood pheromone (SuperBoost; Contech Enterprises Inc., Delta, BC, Canada) on the productivity and vigor of package bee colonies in the lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia, Canada. Fifty-eight newlyestablished 1.3-kg (3-lb) colonies treated three times with SuperBoost at 5-wk intervals starting 30 April 2009 were compared with 52 untreated control colonies. Treated colonies produced 84.3% more honey than untreated control colonies. By 8 September 2009, SuperBoost-treated colonies had 35.4% more adults than untreated colonies. By 28 September, net survival of treated and control colonies was 72.4 and 67.3%, respectively. On 5 October, treated and control colonies were divided into two additional groups, making up four cohorts: SuperBoost-treated colonies treated again during fall and spring build-up feeding with pollen substitute diet (BeePro, Mann Lake Ltd., Hackensack, MN; TIT); controls that remained untreated throughout the year (CCC); colonies treated with SuperBoost in spring-summer 2009 but not treated thereafter (TCC); and original control colonies treated with SuperBoost during the fall and spring build-up feeding periods (CTT). There was no difference among cohorts in consumption of BeePro during fall feeding, but TTT colonies (including daughter colonies split off from parent colonies) consumed 50.8% more diet than CCC colonies during spring build-up feeding. By 21 April, the normalized percentages of the original number of colonies remaining (dead colonies partially offset by splits) were as follows: CCC, 31.4%; CTT, 43.8%; TCC, 53.59%; and TTT, 80.0%. The net benefit of placing 100 newly established package bee colonies on a year-long six-treatment regime with SuperBoost would be US$6,202 (US$62.02 per colony). We conclude that treatment with SuperBoost enhanced the productivity and survival of package bee colonies and hypothesize that similar results could be achieved with established colonies.

Oxalic acid: a prospective tool for reducing Varroa mite populations in package bees

Numerous studies have investigated using oxalic acid (OA) to control Varroa mites in honey bee colonies. In contrast, techniques for treating package bees with OA have not been investigated. The goal of this study was to develop a protocol for using OA to reduce mite infestation in package bees. We made 97 mini packages of Varroa-infested adult bees. Each package contained 1,613 +/- 18 bees and 92 +/- 3 mites, and represented an experimental unit. We prepared a 2.8% solution of OA by mixing 35 g OA with 1 l of sugar water (sugar:water = 1:1; w:w). Eight treatments were assigned to the packages based on previous laboratory bioassays that characterized the acute contact toxicity of OA to mites and bees. We administered the treatments by spraying the OA solution directly on the bees through the mesh screen cage using a pressurized air brush and quantified mite and bee mortality over a 10-day period. Our results support applying an optimum volume of 3.0 ml of a 2.8% OA solution per 1,000 bees to packages for effective mite control with minimal adult bee mortality. The outcome of our research provides beekeepers and package bee shippers guidance for using OA to reduce mite populations in package bees.

Brood Pheromone Effects on Colony Protein Supplement Consumption and Growth in the Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in a Subtropical Winter Climate

Fatty acid esters extractable from the surface of honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), larvae, called brood pheromone, significantly increase rate of colony growth in the spring and summer when flowering plant pollen is available in the foraging environment. Increased colony growth rate occurs as a consequence of increased pollen intake through mechanisms such as increasing number of pollen foragers and pollen load weights returned. Here, we tested the hypothesis that addition of brood pheromone during the winter pollen dearth period of a humid subtropical climate increases rate of colony growth in colonies provisioned with a protein supplement. Experiments were conducted in late winter (9 February-9 March 2004) and mid-winter (19 January-8 February 2005). In both years, increased brood area, number of bees, and amount of protein supplement consumption were significantly greater in colonies receiving daily treatments of brood pheromone versus control colonies. Amount of extractable protein from hypopharyngeal glands measured in 2005 was significantly greater in bees from pheromone-treated colonies. These results suggest that brood pheromone may be used as a tool to stimulate colony growth in the southern subtropical areas of the United States where the package bee industry is centered and a large proportion of migratory colonies are overwintered.

Evaluation of the Shaking Technique for the Economic Management of American Foulbrood Disease of Honey Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Shaking is a nonantibiotic management technique for the bacterial disease American foulbrood (AFB) (Paenibacillus larvae sensu Genersch et al.), in which infected nesting comb is destroyed and the adult honey bees, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), are transferred onto uncontaminated nesting material. We hypothesized that colonies shaken onto frames of uninfected drawn comb would have similar reductions in AFB symptoms and bacterial spore loads than those shaken onto frames of foundation, but they would attain higher levels of production. We observed that colonies shaken onto drawn comb, or a combination of foundation and drawn comb, exhibited light transitory AFB infections, whereas colonies shaken onto frames containing only foundation failed to exhibit clinical symptoms. Furthermore, concentrations of P. larvae spores in honey and adult worker bees sampled from colonies shaken onto all comb and foundation treatments declined over time and were undetectable in adult bee samples 3 mo after shaking. In contrast, colonies that were reestablished on the original infected comb remained heavily infected resulting in consistently high levels of spores, and eventually, their death. In a subsequent experiment, production of colonies shaken onto foundation was compared with that of colonies established from package (bulk) bees or that of overwintered colonies. Economic analysis proved shaking to be 24% more profitable than using package bees. These results suggest that shaking bees onto frames of foundation in the spring is a feasible option for managing AFB in commercial beekeeping operations where antibiotic use is undesirable or prohibited.

Development of honey bee colonies initiated from package bees on the northern Great Plains of North America.

Development of honey bee colonies initiated from package bees on the northern Great Plains of North America.

What’s in That Package? An Evaluation of Quality of Package Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Shipments in the United States

To replace deceased colonies or to increase the colony numbers, beekeepers often purchase honey bees, Apis mellifera L., in a package, which is composed of 909-1,364 g (2-3 lb) of worker bees and a mated queen. Packages are typically produced in warm regions of the United States in spring and shipped throughout the United States to replace colonies that perished during winter. Although the package bee industry is effective in replacing colonies lost in winter, packages also can be an effective means of dispersing diseases, parasites, and undesirable stock to beekeepers throughout the United States. To evaluate the quality of packages, we examined 48 packages representing six lines of bees purchased in the spring 2006. We estimated levels of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman and the percentage of drone (male) honey bees received in packages. We surveyed for presence of the tracheal honey bee mite, Acarapis woodi (Rennie), and a microsporidian parasite, Nosema spp., in the shipped bees. We found significant differences in both the mean Varroa mite per bee ratios (0.004-0.054) and the average percentage of drones (0.04-5.1%) in packages from different producers. We found significant differences in the number of Nosema-infected packages (0.0-75.0%) among the six lines. No packages contained detectable levels ofA. woodi. Considering the observed variability among honey bee packages, beekeepers should be aware of the potential for pest and disease infestations and high drone levels in packages.

Development of honey bee colonies initiated from package bees on the northern Great Plains of North America

SummarySeasonal changes in the growth and development of honey bee colonies initiated from 0.9 kg packages with mated queens were assessed in south central Manitoba, Canada, at twelve day intervals from late April until early December over two consecutive years, using the Harris Population Estimation Methodology (Harris, 1985). Changes in brood production, worker bee populations and colony demographics were monitored and related to the environmental factors most likely to be responsible for producing the observed changes. In addition, particular emphasis was given to the timing and development of colonies to be over wintered. Only workers emerging after the last week of August formed the over wintering colony population, with most of these workers emerging in September and early October.

Control of Varroa Mites on Caged Honey Bees, 1993

Abstract Live bees were obtained from the brood nests of colonies in an apiary heavily infested with Varroa mites near Cocoa, FL, 13 Mar. Approximately ¼ liter (225 g) of bees from each colony (about 1700 bees) were placed in each of sixteen 20.8-liter screen cages (27.3 × 27.3 × 27.9 cm), equipped with sugar syrup feeders. Caged bees were maintained in a darkened airconditioned trailer (70°F) at the U.S. Horticulture Laboratory, Orlando, FL. Cages were randomized into 3 treatment groups and 1 control group (4 cages per group). A sample of approximately 275 bees (121-346) from each cage was sacrificed to estimate the initial level of mite infestation before treatment. Cages were placed over sticky paper to trap mites that fell. Amitraz smoke-treated cages were placed into a chamber (0.19 m1) for 1 h, where they were exposed to smoke from a strip of filter paper (2.54 × 9 cm) soaked in 15% KNO, and impregnated with 20 mg of Amitraz (Varamit®, sold in the former Yugoslavia). Apistan® package bee strips (Zoecon, Inc.) (a plastic strip, 3.18 × 12.7 cm, containing 2.5% fluvalinate, 21.1 mg AI) were hung from the top of cages near the feeder. Fluvalinate smoke (containing 16.7 mg AI) was administered in the same manner as Amitraz smoke. Cages were placed on shelves over sticky paper for 5 d to trap mites that dropped. Sticky papers were changed at 1, 24 and 120 h post-treatment for mite counts. Exact counts were made of live bees and mites remaining in cages at the conclusion of the 5-d test.

Two-Queen Hive Management Using Package Bees in the Peace River Area, Alberta, Canada

Two-Queen Hive Management Using Package Bees in the Peace River Area, Alberta, Canada

Studies on Hiving Package Bees V. Effects on Loss of Bees of Queenlessness, Size of Package, Shaking Packages During Hiving and Storage Conditions

SummaryHiving queenless package honeybees increased bee losses significantly, as did storage of packages at high temperatures (24°C) for 48 h under either light or dark conditions. However, there were no significant differences in bee losses after hiving between packages containing 0·9 or 1·8 kg bees, between packages that were shaken or not shaken at hiving (in the evening), or between packages stored under light or dark conditions, at 14° or at 24°.

Producing Honey in the Canadian Prairies Using Package Bees

(1982). Producing Honey in the Canadian Prairies Using Package Bees. Bee World: Vol. 63, No. 3, pp. 110-117.

Studies on Hiving Package Bees 4. Effects on Loss and Drifting of Bees of the Method of Hiving, Time of Day, Apiary Layout, and the Presence or Absence of Brood

SummaryHiving package bees into hives containing worker brood, or into hives arranged in the apiary in a U layout, did not significantly reduce subsequent loss of bees. More bees were lost, and more drifted, when packages were hived during the day than in late evening. But hiving packages on the top of frames instead of inside the hive did not increase the subsequent loss of bees.