Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve Research Articles

Free and underfit-scavenger river dynamics dominate the large Amazonian Pacaya-Samiria wetland structure

The Peruvian Amazon is known for harboring the greatest biodiversity on the planet, with a world record for biodiversity per unit area. Previous studies suggested that the high ecological value depends on correlations between ecosystem functionality and seasonal inundation control vegetation patches. However, the knowledge on how river morphodynamics and its complex erosion-depositional processes influence the aquatic mosaic and fishing activity in the region is still incipient. This study examines the hydrogeomorphology of the Peruvian tropical wetland of Pacaya Samiria, located in Western Amazonia, and its role in the distribution of aquatic habitats. By using remote sensing techniques, the hydrogeomorphological connectivity that bounds the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve is characterized by ancient to modern river processes. Additionally, river signatures developed by the Ucayali, Marañon, Huallaga, Pacaya, and Samiria Rivers overlap with fish extraction and dominant vegetation to describe how geomorphology is associated with the spatial distribution of fishing zones. Results indicated that paleochannels regulate wetland drainage within the Ucamara Depression, supporting stational water stagnation, vegetation cover, and formation of carbon rich detritus, relevant aspects to understand fish traits. Moreover, the Ucayali River dominates river dynamics in the Pacaya Samiria wetland, thus playing a pivotal role in shaping the complexity of streams and lakes. Furthermore, underfit-scavenger meandering rivers are observed in areas where paleochannels from large rivers are found. A geomorphological characterization of drainage patterns in freshwater environments, such as Amazonian wetlands, is crucial to develop sound management strategies. This methodological approach is expected to support decision-making in conservation actions in Amazonian environments based on understanding wetland connectivity and hydrogeomorphological behavior and their influence on commercial fisheries.

Hunting, Fighting, or Playing with Bubbles: Possible Usage and Acoustic Characteristics of Bubble Burst Sounds Produced by the Amazon River Dolphin (Inia geoffrensis)

Acoustic characteristics of bubble production by an odontocete were documented for the first time. Bubble sounds produced by the Amazon river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis) were recorded incidentally as part of a survey of fish sounds in the Pacaya–Samiria National Reserve of Peru on six dates between 4 and 24 July 2012. Dolphins were observed to periodically produce large clouds of bubbles underneath or near the survey boat (averaging 7/survey or 8/h) as it drifted through areas of actively foraging dolphins. The bubble production was classified as bubble bursts due to their similarity to bubble bursts produced by other cetaceans. Bubble burst sounds had a mean peak frequency of 402 Hz and duration of 8.9 s (n = 51). Bubble bursts were temporally clustered with an average interval of 169 s (0.1 to 1,187 s) between bursts. Bubble bursts were disproportionately more likely to be present when fish sounds were also present, but it is not known if the association was due to predation or other factors. A review of the literature finds similar bubble production has been reported in at least 14 other species of cetaceans (4 mysticetes and 10 odontocetes). Most are commonly associated with play, surprise, agonistic, and foraging behaviors. We discuss each of these possibilities and conclude that Amazon river dolphin bubble burst behavior is most likely related to foraging or aggressive behavior because the behavior occurred in feeding areas and appeared to be directed at the drifting boat. We further propose a novel hypothesis that the bubble bursts are a hunting strategy used to disperse prey associated with floating vegetation mats and other forms of drifting materials used by fishes for shelter. Future research is needed to better understand the behavior associated with bubble production by the Amazon river dolphin.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OVIPOSITION OF Podocnemis unifilis AND WATER LEVEL IN PERUVIAN AMAZONIAN FLOODPLAINS

In the Amazon floodplains, hydrological variability plays a crucial role by shaping the habitat, offering shelter and feeding or breeding areas. During the dry season, some fresh water turtles such as the yellow-spotted turtle (Podocnemis unifilis Troschel, 1848) use the sand banks at point bar areas as breeding sites, which must be available in time for the start of oviposition. In this study, we used altimetry-derived water level data from radar satellites combined with in-situ hydrological measurements to evaluate water level variations and relate them to oviposition starting dates (2003-2012) from Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru. Synchronous hydrological behavior was found between the major river stems (Ucayali and Marañon) and the inner rivers (Pacaya and Samiria), thus enabling the utilization of water level in the main river stem to correlate with oviposition in the inner rivers. Mean oviposition date was July 23nd with selection of a narrow water level range (92 masl ± 0.9 SD). Consistent shifts towards early/late oviposition were found for years with early/late dry season onset. Extreme biological shifts in terms of oviposition date onset, were identified for specific years (2004, 2010 and 2011) mainly for the extreme dry year of 2010.

Passive acoustic monitoring of river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis and Sotalia fluviatilis) presence:

All river dolphin species are in decline as a direct result of intensified anthropogenic activity along river systems. In South America, the size and geographical complexity of their range pose a challenge to status assessment. Passive acoustic monitoring offers a cost-effective, scalable, and readily standardized method for determining species distribution and can augment the spatiotemporal coverage of visual survey efforts currently underway. A passive acoustic survey of dolphin presence was conducted in two areas of the Amazon River subject to different degrees of human use; the inland port city Iquitos and the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, in Peru. Surveys were based on acoustic detection of biosonar activity. Recorders were distributed at 17 sites along 61 linear km of river habitat for durations of 46 to 148 h. Dolphin presence was 45% lower near the city than in the reserve. This study demonstrates the efficacy of acoustic monitoring as a method for testing dolphin redistribution and/or decline hypotheses in the context of anthropogenic development. The methods are applicable to continuous future monitoring and status assessment of river dolphins in South America as well as in Asia.

Assessing Ecological and Social Dimensions of Success in a Community-based Sustainable Harvest Program.

Community-based conservation and resource management (CBCRM) programs often incorporate the dual goals of poverty alleviation and conservation. However, robust assessments of CBCRM program outcomes are relatively scarce. This study uses a multidisciplinary, systems approach to assess the ecological and social dimensions of success of an internationally acclaimed CBCRM program. This program, located in one of the largest protected areas in the Peruvian Amazon (Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve), strives for the sustainable harvest and trade of a turtle species (Podocnemis unifilis). We used mixed methods analysis, including interviews and population viability modeling, to understand three elements: how local perceptions of changes in the managed population compare to changes inferred by ecological analyses, the indicators stakeholders use to measure success, and the barriers to long-term program success and social-ecological system sustainability. We find that stakeholders perceive a growth trend in the managed turtle population, but this perception may diverge from our ecological understanding of the system under current management. Population viability analyses with a 1:1 sex ratio suggested population size will decline under two of three management scenarios (different degrees of harvest). Yet this and similar studies are plagued by a lack of species- and site-specific population parameters that could improve understanding of the system. Significant vulnerabilities exist for system sustainability, notably the recent decrease in foreign demand for the traded resource. Identifying a sustainable species-specific harvest rate, developing locally-grounded ecological and social indicators, and focusing on data-driven adaptive management will facilitate the identification of key leverage points for future management interventions.

Larger floods reduce soil CO2 efflux during the post-flooding phase in seasonally-flooded forests of Western Amazonia

Seasonally-flooded várzea forests of Western Amazonia are one of the most productive and biodiverse wetland forests in the world. However, data on their soil CO2 emissions, soil organic matter decomposition rates, and soil C stocks are scarce. This is a concern because hydrological changes are predicted to lead to increases in the height, extent, and duration of seasonal floods, which are likely to have a significant effect on soil C stocks and fluxes. However, with no empirical data, the impact of altered flood regimes on várzea soil C cycles remains uncertain. This study quantified the effects of maximum annual flood height and soil moisture on soil CO2 efflux rate (Rs) and soil organic matter decomposition rate (k) in the várzea forests of Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru. The study was conducted between May and August 2017. The results showed that Rs (10.6–182.7 mg C m−2 h–1) and k (0.016–0.078) varied between and within sites, and were considerably lower than the values reported for other tropical forests. In addition, Rs was negatively affected by flood height (P < 0.01) and soil moisture (P < 0.001), and it decreased with decreasing river levels post flooding (P < 0.001). In contrast, k was not affected by any of the above-mentioned factors. Soil moisture was the dominant factor influencing Rs, and it was significantly affected by maximum flood height, even after the floods had subsided (P < 0.001). Consequently, we concluded that larger floods will likely lead to reduced Rs, whilst k could remain unchanged but with decomposition processes becoming more anaerobic.

Wild Meat Species, Climate Change, and Indigenous Amazonians

People throughout the world are adapting to alternative livelihoods as climate change transforms the earth. The western Amazon basin has recently gone through extreme flood levels that resulted in population declines of species used for wild meat, principally white-lipped peccary ( Tayassu pecari), collared peccary ( Pecari tajacu), red brocket deer ( Mazama americana), lowland paca ( Cuniculus paca), and black agouti ( Dasyprocta fuliginosa). The Cocama (Kukama) people of the Samiria River have adapted to the declining wild meat populations by greatly reducing hunting and increasing their fishing activity. We evaluated the sustainability of subsistence hunting of peccaries, deer, lowland tapir ( Tapirus terrestris), large rodents, and primates in flooded forests of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve using camera trap capture rates, density from distance transects, and participatory interviews with Cocama villagers from 2009 to 2018. Peccaries, deer, and large rodents are recovering from population declines that occurred during extreme floods, which suggests that hunting levels are allowing these populations to grow. The primates and lowland tapir have healthy population sizes and stable numbers, which suggests people are hunting these species at sustainable levels. Our results indicate that changes in hunting patterns by the Cocama have permitted peccary, deer, and large rodent populations to recover to varying degrees during years of normal flood levels. The Cocama people are adapting to climate change in a way that agrees with conservation goals and reinforces the importance of community-based approaches to conservation in the Amazon.

Protected Areas Fund Rural Household Dispersal to Urban Areas in Riverine Amazonia

Multi-sited households—which straddle rural and urban realms—are increasingly prevalent in riverine Amazonia. Although research on this collective livelihood strategy has focussed on the consequences for tropical forests, less attention has been given to riverine people’s welfare, or the fish and aquatic resources on which they often depend. Based on research conducted in protected area communities and a major urban centre in the Peruvian Amazon, we detail the sources and forms of capital on which dispersed households draw to jointly make a living. Our findings show that natural capital (specifically fisheries resources) drawn from in and around the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve plays a critical role in facilitating and sustaining household dispersal to urban areas through both direct consumption and nature-human capital substitution. These results indicate that meeting social, economic, and environmental sustainability targets on Amazonian floodplains requires accounting for human mobility and diversified livelihoods across expansive geographic areas.

ECTOPARÁSITOS ASOCIADOS A LAS BRANQUIAS DE LA ARAHUANA, Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (Cuvier, 1829) PROCEDENTES DE LA COCHA EL DORADO (RESERVA NACIONAL PACAYA SAMIRIA), AMAZONIA PERUANA

El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la diversidad y abundancia de ectoparásitos en las branquias de 80 ejemplares de arahuana Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (Cuvier, 1829) provenientes del lago “El Dorado”, “Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria”, Loreto, Perú. Las branquias de cada ejemplar fueron colectadas y colocadas por separado en solución formalina y agua (1:4000) y preservadas en refrigeración a 4°C hasta su análisis en el laboratorio. El análisis consistió en la localización, conteo, colecta y fijación de los ectoparásitos de cada arco branquial. Los resultados muestran que el 100% de los ejemplares analizados estuvieron infestados con uno o más ectoparásitos. Fueron identificados un total de cinco especies de Monogenoidea: Gonocleithrum cursitans Kritsky &amp; Thatcher, 1983, Gonocleithrum aruanae Kritsky &amp; Thatcher, 1983 y Gonocleithrum coenoideum Kritsky &amp; Thatcher, 1983 y dos de Copepoda: Ergasilus sp. y Therodamas elongatus (Thatcher, 1986). Gonocleithrum cursitans fue el ectoparásito con mayor prevalencia (100%). Therodamas elongatus es reportado por primera vez en el Perú parasitando a ejemplares de O. bicirrhosum.

Mi casa pequeña, mi corazón grande. Política territorial y cosmológica del pueblo Kukama

Este artículo describe la expresión de la conciencia histórica (Santos-Granero 2004) del pueblo Kukama, de origen tupí-guaraní, que ocupa la llanura amazónica. En su punto de vista conceptual, encontramos la existencia de varias categorías de agentes (Latour 2007), entre ellos, “espíritus-gentes”, “animales-gente”, “plantas-gente”, “peces-gente” y “aves-gente” que nos señalan sus relaciones intrínsecas (Tello Imaina 2016) y moldean el territorio a partir de mitemas (Lévi-Strauss 1968) y presencias paisajísticas y materiales. Siguiendo esta perspectiva, es posible notar una cosmopolítica amazónica kukama, relacionada a la formación de su territorio y el patrón de distribución de agentes humanos y no humanas en un “tiempo sin tiempo” (Tello Imaina 2018) que ordena la vida social y las interacciones con el entorno de las tierras bajas tropicales. Para este fin, realizamos un trabajo etnográfico en la comunidad nativa Dos de Mayo, ubicada en la cuenca del río Marañón (Loreto, Perú), donde entrevistamos a líderes, pescadores y ancianos; mapeamos junto a los moradores lugares de avistamiento del mundo cosmológico y hallazgo de artefactos arqueológicos; y contrastamos los testimonios con las opiniones de sabios kukama de la ciudad de Nauta. Encontramos que las diversas versiones siguen el mismo padrón, describiendo una dinámica histórica socio-espacial de afinidades que forma una red de lugares encantados que trazan el eje fluvial Marañón-Ucayali, en torno a la Reserva Nacional Pacaya Samiria. Este conocimiento del entorno, al relacionarse con el conocimiento arqueológico y lingüístico sobre el tronco Tupí, abre espacio para un debate antropológico más profundo acerca de las redes de sociabilidad y formas de interacción entre agentes y su entorno, tanto social como natural, en la Amazonía. Siendo así, buscamos llenar lagunas teóricas existentes en las investigaciones etnográficas anteriores sobre el tema.

MONITOREO DE LA ABUNDANCIA DE Arapaima gigas EN LA CUENCA BAJA DEL RÍO PACAYA, RESERVA NACIONAL PACAYA SAMIRIA, AMAZONÍA PERUANA

La información sobre la abundancia del paiche (Arapaima gigas) en medio natural en la Amazonía peruana es muy escasa, siendo mayor los resultados obtenidos de los programas de manejo pesquero mediante actividades de monitoreo en los lugares donde la especie se viene aprovechando con fines comerciales. En este trabajo se presentan los resultados del monitoreo anual realizado entre el 2014 y 2017, en la zona de Yarina, cuenca baja del río Pacaya, comprensión de la Reserva Nacional Pacaya Samiria (RNPS). Entre los resultados destaca que la población del paiche no es homogénea en los cuerpos de agua, tal es así que, se registró una densidad promedio mayor en los caños de Yarina y Huama en comparación con lo registrado en las cochas Zapote y Yarina. Finalmente, se tiene que, la baja profundidad de los cuerpos de agua registrada en el caño Huama durante el 2017, influyó en la abundancia de individuos del paiche en la categoría de adultos, caso contrario ocurrió con los ejemplares juveniles.

Potential for use of passive acoustic monitoring of piranhas in the Pacaya–Samiria National Reserve in Peru

Abstract Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) can be an effective tool in the identification of fishes and mapping of their temporal and spatial distribution patterns and thereby aids in ecosystem management in remote locations. However, to date measurements of the acoustic properties of piranha have been primarily made in aquaria on captive specimens obtained through the aquarium trade. Data on the sound production of wild piranha taken under natural field conditions would enhance PAM applications. Piranha captured as part of routine annual monitoring by Operation Wallacea within the Pacaya–Samiria National Reserve in Peru were auditioned for sound production prior to release. Auditioning was done by gently holding a fish underwater in the river near a suspended hydrophone, thus recordings included the piranha sound as well as natural ambient sound. Seventy‐nine per cent of the 129 auditioned piranha, including Pygocentrus nattereri, Serrasalmus maculatus, Serrasalmus cf. sanchezi and an unidentified Serrasalmus spp. complex, produced sounds consisting of 2 to 23 barks in a sequential series. Sound production by S. maculatus and S. cf. sanchezi are reported for the first time. Bark characteristics exhibited high variation within bark series of individual fish. Piranha could not be distinguished by single variables but did exhibit significant multivariate differences. The relationship of several variables to fish size also differed significantly among species. Measurements of within‐fish variation and bark series pattern attributes were found to be useful for discrimination of sounds among piranha species. We demonstrate that closely related species of piranha can be distinguished by their sounds under natural acoustic conditions based on multivariate analyses, suggesting that passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) can be an effective tool for ecosystem management in the Amazon. More broadly, our study also suggests (a) the need to report more detailed statistical descriptions of fish sounds, including measures of within‐fish variation, (b) the importance of describing characteristics of sound series produced by fishes in addition to those of individual sound types and (c) the need to deposit museum voucher specimens to anchor specific sounds to specific individuals.

Sustainable wildlife extraction and the impacts of socio-economic change among the Kukama-Kukamilla people of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru

AbstractThroughout the tropics, hunting and fishing are critical livelihood activities for many Indigenous peoples. However, these practices may not be sustainable following recent socio-economic changes in Indigenous populations. To understand how human population growth and increased market integration affect hunting and fishing patterns, we conducted semi-structured interviews in five Kukama-Kukamilla communities living along the boundary of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, in the Peruvian Amazon. Extrapolated annual harvest rates of fish and game species by these communities amounted to 1,740 t and 4,275 individuals (67 t), respectively. At least 23 fish and 27 game species were harvested. We found a positive correlation between village size and annual community-level harvest rates of fish and a negative relationship between market exposure and mean per-capita harvest rates of fish. Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) analyses indicated local depletion of fish populations around larger, more commercial communities. Catch-per-unit-effort of fish was lower in more commercial communities and fishers from the largest village travelled further into the Reserve, where CPUE was higher. We found no effect of village size or market exposure on harvest rates or CPUE of game species. However, larger, more commercial communities targeted larger, economically valuable species. This study provides evidence that human population growth and market-driven hunting and fishing pose a growing threat to wildlife and Indigenous livelihoods through increased harvest rates and selective harvesting of species vulnerable to exploitation.

Sounds from the Amazon: Piranha and prey

The underwater soundscape of an upper tributary of the Amazon River was studied in a four-week survey from 3 to 26 July 2012 within the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru. Over 550 individuals representing over 70 species of fishes were auditioned for sound production. In addition, over 641 minutes of natural sounds from the river were recorded from 22 sites. We demonstrate that closely related species of piranha can be distinguished by their hand-held disturbance sounds. Similar piranha sounds were recorded in the wild at locations where piranha were known to be actively feeding. Sounds of catfishes and other fishes were significantly more frequent at piranha feeding sites. Thus, piranha sounds appear to be excellent indicators of local piranha feeding activity and suggest that passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) can be an effective tool for studies on piranha behavior, feeding activity, and impact on prey fishes.

Group Size, Habitat Use and Behavioral Ecology of Amazonian River Dolphins (Inia geoffrensis and Sotalia fluviatilis) in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru

Presentation Title: River dolphins globally represent a highly at risk group of mammals. Most river dolphin species inhabit the world’s large rivers, which are also highly populated and heavily utilized. The focus of my research was on the two species of freshwater dolphins that inhabit the Amazon River, the boto (Inia geoffrensis) and the tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis). Currently both species are listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as ‘Data Defficient’, which means there is currently not enough information known about them to accurately assess whether or not they are endangered. Major gaps in research of these two species currently exist in many basic biological and ecological parameters. The focus of this research was to compare existing data on group size and habitat preference as well as determine the behavioral ecology of the two species of river dolphins. The research was conducted in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru, which has a relatively high density of river dolphins. The reserve consists of many small tributaries, which are relatively understudied and so the conclusions drawn from this research will help guide future research and management decisions in other regions of the Amazon.

Combining H/A/Alpha Polarimetric Decomposition of PolSAR Data with Image Classification for Wetland Identification: A Case Study of Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru

Unlike coastal wetlands, large tropical rivers' wetlands present a dry and flooded annual phase that follows the hydrologic pulse. Mapping such wetlands with passive remote sensors is challenging due to the dense tropical vegetation and cloud cover that block the understory water reflectance. In this study, we use NASA-JPL's full polarized UAVSAR-L-band PolSAR images to map wetlands during high water season in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve in Peru, located between the Ucayali and Maranon rivers. Wetland identification was obtained in a two-step process. First, polarimetric matrices were extracted from the terrain-corrected raw images followed by polarimetric processing. Next, the H/A/Alpha decomposed parameters were used in an unsupervised classification to obtain five distinctive land cover classes. The results show that 69 percent of the reserve was flooded, 21 percent was upland forests, and open water comprised 10 percent. Results were compared with Global Forest Change, Google Earth, and Hess et al. (2003) wetland data sets. The article concludes with a discussion about the usefulness of polarimetric radar imagery in combination with image classification algorithms to identify wetlands during high water season in tropical regions.

Dietary Overlap Between Black Caimans and Spectacled Caimans in the Peruvian Amazon

The Black Caiman (Melanosuchus niger) experienced a dramatic population decline in the mid-20th century, becoming extinct or locally rare over most of its range due to habitat destruction and the commercial value of its hide. As the success and re-establishment of the species is now dependent on conservation efforts throughout the Amazon basin, Black Caimans require continuous monitoring despite extensive current legal protection. Although such efforts have mitigated the threat of human harvesting, a key issue facing the species today is ecological competition from sympatric Spectacled Caimans (Caiman crocodilus). In this study, we investigated this inferred competition by detailing the dietary overlap between Black Caimans and Spectacled Caimans in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve in 2009. Using an adaptation of the hose-Heimlich technique, we collected and then compared the stomach contents of several individuals of each species. We found that although the proportions of prey items in their stomach contents varied seasonally, the dietary overlap between the two species remained high, suggesting intense competition for food resources. In addition to seasonal changes, the diet composition of Black Caimans also shifted ontogenetically. Young Black Caimans primarily ate insects and crustaceans, whereas larger individuals mostly preyed on fish, reducing intraspecific competition between crocodilian adults and young. Our findings suggest that Spectacled Caimans will continue to hinder the recovery of the Black Caiman population.

Diversity and geneflow in a migratory frugivorous fish: implications for Amazonian habitat connectivity

Colossoma macropomum is an ecologically and economically important fish distributed throughout the major tributaries of the Amazon River. C. macropomum require a suite of habitat types for different life stages making them potentially susceptible to the impacts of habitat fragmentation and alteration. As a means of better understanding the potential impacts of development, baseline data on connectivity and patterns of gene flow in species from relatively undisturbed habitat will be of value to monitor potential ecosystem impacts of anthropogenic habitat alteration on native fish communities. We used 13 single sequence repeat markers to determine if fine-scale structuring could be detected at the landscape scale at the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru. We also applied a model testing approach to evaluate the strength of different migration models, including panmixia, stepping stone and isolation models. Bayesian clustering detected a single genetic grouping across 131 fish. However, a comparison of marginal likelihoods for alternative migration models across PSNR supported a stepping stone model, rather than panmixia (Probability ~1.0). These results demonstrate that even in highly migratory fish with limited genetic structure, the effects of anthropogenic aquatic habitat alterations can be explored using genetic data.

Biology and Conservation of the Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises of Peru

Little information has been published on Peruvian chelonians. Here we have compiled the available literature pertaining to Peruvian freshwater turtles and tortoises on four topics: Human consumption and ethnobiology, habitat use, status and abundance, and reproduction. In addition, we provide a map of the regions of Peru showing the number of research records and the number of species that occur in each region. Reproduction was the topic most frequently studied, although investigations were concentrated on only three species (Podocnemis unifilis, P. expansa, P. sextuberculata). The regions where the most studies were implemented are the Departamentos de Loreto and Madre de Dios, with studies tending to be concentrated in the vicinity of Iquitos, the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, and Manu National Park and its buffer zone. In general, regions in which more research effort was evident reported more turtle species, which suggests that the least-studied states could have more species, as they share the same types of habitats as the more intensely investigated regions. We identified major gaps in information and suggest future research in the following poorly studied Peruvian regions: Departaments of Junín, San Martín, Tumbes, Huanuco, Amazonas, Cusco, Ayacucho, Puno, Huancavelica, and Cajamarca. The status, distribution, and abundance of Peruvian populations of Podocnemis expansa, P. unifilis, Chelonoidis carbonaria, Peltocephalus dumerilianus, and Mesoclemmys heliostemma are in particular need of study. Conservation priorities are also discussed.

Debt-for-Nature Swaps in Action: Two Case Studies in Peru

Debt-for-nature swaps are a major source of global funding for nature conservation and have been touted as a win-win solution to the problem of how to finance conservation. This paper examines how the United States' debt-for-nature-swap program, the Tropical Forest Conservation Act, works in the field. We provide an introduction to the technical aspects of the debt-for-nature swap mechanism, then describe how the program operates on the ground, using the United States-Peru swap as an example. We focus on two case studies that are largely representative of the Tropical Forest Conservation Act's work in Peru: 1) ProNaturaleza's project in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, and 2) five distinct projects centered around reducing illegal logging in and around Alto Purus National Park. We explore the range of programs financed through swaps, as well as whether debt-for-nature swap projects meet their goals of strengthening civil society and increasing local capacity. We also discuss the efficacy of debt-for-nature swap monitoring, which tends to privilege fiscal evaluations of area protected over direct conservation outcomes. Although Tropical Forest Conservation Act projects may well have conservation effects, the current methods of measuring success do not reflect the types of conservation impacts of Tropical Forest Conservation Act projects.