Paul Dirac Research Articles

Studying the properties of antimatter and its potential uses

Antimatter is a unique type of matter that consists of antiparticles with electrical charges opposite to those of ordinary particles and different quantum numbers.The contemporary theory of antimatter originated in 1928 when Paul Dirac published a paper that laid its foundations. In a 1931 paper, Dirac predicted the existence of antimatter and referred to the positron as the anti-electron.Dirac's wave equation postulated the existence of anti-particles like anti-protons and anti-neutrons, which scientists later discovered through experimental observations in 1955 and 1956.

Пифагорейский аргумент разумного замысла Вселенной и его критика. Статья 4: Метафизика основоположников физики

In this, the penultimate article of our Pythagorean cycle, we turn to the metaphysical or natural-philosophical heritage of those great men who are referred to as founders or pioneers of physics. The choice of specific figures in this kind of research is surely arguable to some extent. Our choice is limited by the length of the paper, the availability of relevant texts, and yes, a certain subjectivity of our evaluations. After a brief Introduction, we give an overview of the tension between the paradigm of physical reductionism and the intuition of free will. We show how the author of the first universal physical theory, Isaac Newton, resolved this contradiction, and how he held the belief in the authenticity of free will while sacrificing not only mechanistic reductionism but also belief in the omniscience of God. These philosophical problems are then discussed in the light of the modifications to physical conceptions of the universe that twentieth-century physics has made. Turning to James Clerk Maxwell, the author of the equations of electrodynamics, we note his philosophical primacy in pointing out the important feature of physical laws that ensures their discoverability: the correlation of their mathematical complexity with the difficulty of observing the corresponding layer of reality. Speaking of Albert Einstein’s philosophical views, we note in them a combination of a deep understanding of the mystical basis of physics with the naivety of moral philosophy. Like Einstein, Max Planck was a deistic idealist who did not believe in a “personal God,” but, aware of the enormous moral significance of Christianity, only shortly before his death he publicly declared this unbelief as a long-held conviction. Reflections on Niels Bohr lead us to conclude that he was an apophatic mystic, combining the complementary qualities of a passionate desire for theoretical clarity and an anticipation of its impossibility. Erwin Schrödinger, to whose views we next draw attention, expressed them in terms of Vedanta idealism. It seems to us that the same views can be expressed within a European context, albeit unorthodox. Turning to Werner Heisenberg, who in his youth read Plato in the original, we show not only his Platonism, but also his understanding that the connection with God is the moral foundation, the loss of which is ruinous. The drama of being, according to the author of the uncertainty relation, has to do with the fact that the divine will is essentially embodied through human freedom, through the indeterminacy of conscious choice. In the section on Wolfgang Pauli, we note his amazement at the profound harmony of the mental and the material spheres, which reveals itself with particular power in the mathematical discoverability of the material world. Hence began his search for a possible reason for this agreement, the search accompanied by many years of conversations with Carl Gustav Jung. The concluding section of the article is devoted to Paul Dirac, who, unique among the great physicists, went from Marxist atheism to preaching about Godmathematics, and then to regular prayers in church.

Pseudoscalar current and covariance with the light-front approach

Quantum Field Theory (QFT) is used to describe the physics of particles in terms of their fundamental constituents. The Light-Front Field Theory (LFFT), introduced by Paul Dirac in 1949 [1], is an alternative approach to solve some of the problems that arise in quantum field theory. The LFFT is similar to the Equal Time Quantum Field Theory (EQT), however, some particularities are not, such as the loss of covariance in the light-front. Pion electromagnetic form factor is studied in this work at lower and higher momentum transfer regions to explore the constituent quark models and the differences among these and other models. The electromagnetic current is calculated with both the “plus” and “minus” components in the light-front approach. The results are compared with other models, as well as with experimental data.

The Generation of Positrons from Mega-STN and Function as an Alternative Energy Source

Paul Dirac (1902-1984) theoretically predicted the existence of positrons for the first time in 1928, and Carl Anderson (1905-1991) found the positrons through cosmic ray observation experiments in 1932. Positrons are the antiparticle of electron, and their spin and mass are equal to electrons and they have the same electric charge but are different in sign. That is, their spin is ½ Fermion, their electric charge is base charge +e, and their mass is approximately 9.11×10−31 kg. Because positrons are the lightest particle with a positive charge, they have an infinite lifespan without collapsing into other particles. But if positron meets with another electron surrounding them, double extinction of positron and electron occurs, and positrons disappear with electrons, and then photons are generated. Because the earth has many electrons, double extinction occurs immediately in most cases even if positrons are created. There is gravity, electromagnetic force, weak interaction in the interaction of positrons, and the isotopes emitting positrons include carbon-11, nitrogen-13, oxygen-15, fluorine-18. For example, carbon- 11 turns into boron-11. These isotopes are used on positron emission tomography device. Electron capture is another way of decay that can occur competitively with positron emission, but the larger the difference of energy is, the higher the probability of decaying due to positron emission is. Researchers say that positrons are generated if there is collision between high energies by the interaction of positrons, but we think that this should be supplemented more. There is a hypothesis that positrons are generated when the unstable radioactive isotopes created during a supernova explosion collapse. It is inevitable that it will cost a lot of time and money when generating radioactive isotopes according to this hypothesis. This makes us try new methods about positrons emission breaking away from conventional fusion methods. Our new methods for generating positrons are to make artificially the fusion with micro/nanoparticles and isotopes emitting positrons and the interchangeability between them, and to create a great deal of heat energy by making micro/ nanoparticles collide into each other with using thermal energy and waves between micro/nanoparticles. We think that our new methods are the best way to generate high heat with a small energy source. To put our ideas into practice, we made a stainless steel rectangular plate using the combined materials of MEGA-STN, that is the new types fused with each of micro/nanoparticles and isotopes emitting positrons, and added MEGA-STN to materials of the existing stainless steel heater stick. We measured temperature changes depending on whether or not the materials are present and depending on the content of the materials, and checked even positrons emission in our study. We also measured the air quality and the amount of oxygen as well as humidity. Consequently, we found out obtaining high-temperature heat energy by investing less energy. The surface temperature of the existing stainless-steel heater stick did not exceed 320℃ when 3Kw electricity was supplied, but one of stainless-steel heater stick which is mixed with the materials of MEGA-STN was 1000℃. Based on these results, we think that our MEGA-STN can be replaced as a heat energy source which is necessary for all industries using fossil fuel, nuclear power, sunlight generation, wind power and so on, and this can bring good synergy to climate and environment. We expect that our emitted positrons cause the changes of the amount of oxygen and air quality, affect plants and animals including ecological growth, and so make a big difference in human life.

Physics and poetry revisited

In his April 2022 editorial (page 8), Charles Day opens with a quote from Paul Dirac: “The aim of science is to make difficult things understandable in a simpler way; the aim of poetry is to state simple things in an incomprehensible way. The two are incompatible.” As a poet with a bachelor’s in applied math, I find Dirac’s comment to be clever but misguided.Doubtless many poets would say that physics makes the simple incomprehensible. Comprehension is a function of training, and mathematical formulation remains baffling to many. Meanwhile, we should always be suspicious of the Dunning–Kruger effect when judging others’ fields as dealing with especially simple matters, particularly when we can see that we do not understand the results.Poets have diverse aims, not primarily obfuscatory. Some poets explore the limits of language, seeking to say that which is unsayable in everyday speech—a task tackled elegantly by quantum formalism in a domain for which our vernacular has not evolved. The very syntax of human language obscures fundamental understanding of the “really real world” beyond the prosaic and the mesoscale.Dirac was 13 years old when the poet Hugo Ball presented his “Dada Manifesto” (1916) in pursuit of “poems that are meant to dispense with conventional language.” Such “experimental poetry” may reveal aspects of how language functions or how the brain constructs meaning. Poetic diction may be deliberately dissociated from lyric expression to examine language distinct from confounding factors of sentiment (see, for example, the Language poets of the 1960s and 1970s, such as Ron Silliman, Lyn Hejinian, and Bernadette Mayer).Incomprehensible? Yes, often. But it misses the mark to say that the simple has been made so. Poetry is a kind of laboratory environment where language can be brought to exhibit all sorts of odd behaviors that won’t occur in plain prose. The process may appear bizarre, and the results ambiguous. Surely a physicist can relate. Section:ChooseTop of page <<© 2023 American Institute of Physics.

Physics and poetry revisited

Charles Day’s column, “Physics and poetry,” in the April 2022 issue (page 8) is correct to push back on claims that the two are “incompatible” (attributed to Paul Dirac). But I disagree with one of his later statements, “Physics is abstraction. Its use for metaphor and simile is limited.”Physics is rich with metaphors, its very abstraction itself perhaps accounting for many of them. The pendulum as an oscillation about a mean between two limits on either side of an equilibrium is a hoary metaphor in ordinary language and the social sciences. It gets an even wider meaning in the hands of a physicist who sees the same mathematics and physics of harmonic oscillations in contexts far from material bobs on strings or swaying branches. Richard Feynman, a name that Day rightly invokes, rendered poetically many a physical theme and saw in the design of a Japanese gate a poetic “explanation” for broken symmetry in nature as seen in theoretical physics.11. R. P. Feynman, Six Not-So-Easy Pieces: Einstein’s Relativity, Symmetry, and Space-Time, Basic Books (2011), p. 47. Some other examples of metaphors across physics are in my book, The Beauty of Physics: Patterns, Principles, and Perspectives (2014).ReferenceSection:ChooseTop of pageReference <<1. R. P. Feynman, Six Not-So-Easy Pieces: Einstein’s Relativity, Symmetry, and Space-Time, Basic Books (2011), p. 47. Google Scholar© 2023 American Institute of Physics.

The Relation between MEGA-STN and Positron Wave Thermal Energy

Paul Dirac(1902-1984) theoretically predicted the existence of positrons for the first time in 1928, and Carl Anderson(1905-1991) found the positrons through cosmic ray observation experiments in 1932. Positrons are the antiparticle of electron, and their spin and mass are equal to electrons and they have the same electric charge but are different in sign. That is, their spin is ½ Fermion, their electric charge is base charge +e, and their mass is approximately 9.11×10−31 kg. Because positrons are the lightest particle with a positive charge, they have an infinite lifespan without collapsing into other particles. But if positron meets with another electron surrounding them, double extinction of positron and electron occurs, and positrons disappear with electrons, and then photons are generated. Because the earth has many electrons, double extinction occurs immediately in most cases even if positrons are created. There are gravity, electromagnetic force, weak interaction in the interaction of positrons, and the isotopes emitting positrons include carbon-11, nitrogen-13, oxygen-15, fluorine-18. For example, carbon11 turns into boron-11. These isotopes are used on positron emission tomography device. Electron capture is another way of decay that can occur competitively with positron emission, but the larger the difference of energy is, the higher the probability of decaying due to positron emission is. Researchers say that positrons are generated if there is collision between high energies by the interaction of positrons, but we think that this should be supplemented more. There is a hypothesis that positrons are generated when the unstable radioactive isotopes created during a supernova explosion collapse. It is inevitable that it will cost a lot of time and money when generating radioactive isotopes according to this hypothesis. This makes us try new methods about positrons emission breaking away from conventional fusion methods. Our new methods for generating positrons are to make artificially the fusion with micro/nanoparticles and isotopes emitting positrons and the interchangeability between them, and to create a great deal of heat energy by making micro/nanoparticles collide into each other with using thermal energy and waves between micro/ nanoparticles. We think that our new methods are the best way to generate high heat with a small energy source. To put our ideas into practice, we made a stainless steel rectangular plate using the combined materials of MEGA-STN, that is the new types fused with each of micro/nanoparticles and isotopes emitting positrons, and added MEGA-STN to materials of the existing stainless steel heater stick. We measured temperature changes depending on whether or not the materials are present and depending on the content of the materials, and checked even positrons emission in our study. Consequently, we found increasing to 200~300℃ compared to the general temperature when a constant temperature is created with minimal energy, making a marked change in temperature of our MEGA-STN and emitting positrons at a particular temperature. It is believed to have paved the way for the use of energy sources throughout the industry. Additionally, we realized that photon production caused by the double annihilation of positrons and electrons can affect plants (growth and yields) and insects (the activity of bees in winter) ecologically, cause changes in the environment such as the quality of air and water, and have a positive impact in all areas of our life.

Imagine the World, New Insight into Creation, Gravity and Evolution

Since the publication of Einstein’s theory of general relativity, a variety of interpretations have been suggested. In 1937, Paul Dirac presented his Large Number Hypothesis (LNH) based on the large difference between gravitational and electromagnetic forces. As a consequence, the energy is proportional to the radius squared and the gravitational constant is inversely proportional to the radius of the universe. The energy increases during expansion, Dirac used the term “additive creation”. The objective is to prove the validity of Dirac’s claims. A new theory, CBU (Continuously Breeding Universe), has been developed. The universe is considered a black hole originating from the single fluctuation of a positron-electron pair. The expansion is driven by the formation of new pairs. The negative gravitational potential energy balances the increase in matter energy. Due to G ~ 1/r, the Planck length and Planck time tP depend on the curvature of space. The Schrödinger solution of an initial positron-electron fluctuation contains a parameter equal to the Planck length. The CBU theory postulates that the primordial universe undergoes a transition from a black hole to a photon-filled universe. After the transition, one half of the energy is bound to numerous “small” black holes, the seeds for galaxies, while the other half propagates as CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) radiation. The CMB photons are due to e+ -e- annihilations. Characteristically, the CMB photons are pairwise entangled, the radiation loses wave energy but compensates by increasing the photon numbers. According to a new model for black holes, a continuous inflow of matter prevents the black holes from becoming singularities. An energy gap between the event horizon and the inner photon sphere is the source of real matter from a QED vacuum foam. There is evidence that all stellar matter originates from a proton-antiproton outflow from the galaxy central black hole.

World Physics in Ukraine: A Unique Experience of Consolidation of Scientists at Kharkiv Research Center of Physics (in the 1920s-1930s)

The article examines the development of physics research in Ukraine on the example of the Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Technology (UIPT). Founded on the initiative of the eminent physicist Abram Ioffe, the UIPT has gradually become one of the world’s leading research institutions. During 1928–1938, many important events took place at the institute, which became markers for the development of physics in Ukraine and the USSR as well as in the world. An experiment on the fission of atomic nucleus using artificially accelerated protons confirmed the validity of the intentions to reorient research towards nuclear physics. The involvement of foreign specialists in the work of the UIPT contributed to the informal consolidation of scientific thinking in physics. Outstanding physicists of the world such as Boris Podolskyi, Oleksandr Weisberg, Konrad Weiselberg, Friedrich Houtermans, Laszlo Tisza, Fritz Lange, Victor Weisskopf, George Placzek, Paul Dirac, Georgii Gamov, Niels Bohr, Paul Ehrenfest, and others worked here for longer or shorter periods. Niels Bohr, Ivar Waller, Milton S. Plesset, Evan J. Williams, and Leon Rosenfeld made reports at the theoretical conferences of UIPT. As a result, in the late 1920s and during the 1930s, an informal society of physicists from around the world was formed in Kharkiv. The consolidation of talented scientists has accumulated traditions, centuries of experience, and practical knowledge in the field from many scientific schools around the world.

Symplectic Foliation Structures of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics as Dissipation Model: Application to Metriplectic Nonlinear Lindblad Quantum Master Equation.

The idea of a canonical ensemble from Gibbs has been extended by Jean-Marie Souriau for a symplectic manifold where a Lie group has a Hamiltonian action. A novel symplectic thermodynamics and information geometry known as "Lie group thermodynamics" then explains foliation structures of thermodynamics. We then infer a geometric structure for heat equation from this archetypal model, and we have discovered a pure geometric structure of entropy, which characterizes entropy in coadjoint representation as an invariant Casimir function. The coadjoint orbits form the level sets on the entropy. By using the KKS 2-form in the affine case via Souriau's cocycle, the method also enables the Fisher metric from information geometry for Lie groups. The fact that transverse dynamics to these symplectic leaves is dissipative, whilst dynamics along these symplectic leaves characterize non-dissipative phenomenon, can be used to interpret this Lie group thermodynamics within the context of an open system out of thermodynamics equilibrium. In the following section, we will discuss the dissipative symplectic model of heat and information through the Poisson transverse structure to the symplectic leaf of coadjoint orbits, which is based on the metriplectic bracket, which guarantees conservation of energy and non-decrease of entropy. Baptiste Coquinot recently developed a new foundation theory for dissipative brackets by taking a broad perspective from non-equilibrium thermodynamics. He did this by first considering more natural variables for building the bracket used in metriplectic flow and then by presenting a methodical approach to the development of the theory. By deriving a generic dissipative bracket from fundamental thermodynamic first principles, Baptiste Coquinot demonstrates that brackets for the dissipative part are entirely natural, just as Poisson brackets for the non-dissipative part are canonical for Hamiltonian dynamics. We shall investigate how the theory of dissipative brackets introduced by Paul Dirac for limited Hamiltonian systems relates to transverse structure. We shall investigate an alternative method to the metriplectic method based on Michel Saint Germain's PhD research on the transverse Poisson structure. We will examine an alternative method to the metriplectic method based on the transverse Poisson structure, which Michel Saint-Germain studied for his PhD and was motivated by the key works of Fokko du Cloux. In continuation of Saint-Germain's works, Hervé Sabourin highlights the, for transverse Poisson structures, polynomial nature to nilpotent adjoint orbits and demonstrated that the Casimir functions of the transverse Poisson structure that result from restriction to the Lie-Poisson structure transverse slice are Casimir functions independent of the transverse Poisson structure. He also demonstrated that, on the transverse slice, two polynomial Poisson structures to the symplectic leaf appear that have Casimir functions. The dissipative equation introduced by Lindblad, from the Hamiltonian Liouville equation operating on the quantum density matrix, will be applied to illustrate these previous models. For the Lindblad operator, the dissipative component has been described as the relative entropy gradient and the maximum entropy principle by Öttinger. It has been observed then that the Lindblad equation is a linear approximation of the metriplectic equation.

Dirac’s Refined Unification of Quantum Mechanics and Special Relativity: An Intertheoretic Context

One of the key episodes of history of modern physics – Paul Dirac’s startling contrivance of the relativistic theory of the electron – is elicited in the context of lucid epistemological model of mature theory change. The peculiar character of Dirac’s synthesis of special relativity and quantum mechanics is revealed by comparison with Einstein’s sophisticated methodology of the General Relativity contrivance. The subtle structure of Dirac’s scientific research program and first and foremost the odd principles that put up its powerful heuristics is scrutinized with special emphasis on the highly controversial tenet of “mathematical beauty.” It is contended that despite the relentless Dirac’s remarks denigrating the controversial role of philosophy one can trace its indirect influence through Arthur Eddington’s and Hermann Weyl’s whimsical mathematical models. Accordingly, the milestones of Dirac’s research programme realization in the distinctive context of the applied epistemological doctrine are indicated.

“The language of Dirac’s theory of radiation”: the inception and initial reception of a tool for the quantum field theorist

In 1927, Paul Dirac first explicitly introduced the idea that electrodynamical processes can be evaluated by decomposing them into virtual (modern terminology), energy non-conserving subprocesses. This mode of reasoning structured a lot of the perturbative evaluations of quantum electrodynamics during the 1930s. Although the physical picture connected to Feynman diagrams is no longer based on energy non-conserving transitions but on off-shell particles, emission and absorption subprocesses still remain their fundamental constituents. This article will access the introduction and the initial reception of this picture of subsequent transitions (PST) by conceiving of concepts, models, and their representations as tools for the practitioners. I will argue for a multi-factorial explanation of Dirac’s initial, verbally explicit introduction: the mathematical representation he had developed was highly suggestive and already partly conceptualized; Dirac was philosophical flexible enough to talk about transitions when no actual transitions, according to the general interpretation of quantum mechanics of the time, occurred; and, importantly, Dirac eventually used the verbal exposition in the same paper in which he introduced it. The direct impact of PST on the conception of quantum electrodynamical processes will be exemplified by its reflection in diagrammatical representations. The study of the diverging ontological commitments towards PST immediately after its introduction opens up the prehistory of a philosophical debate that stretches out into the present: the dispute about the representational and ontological status of the physical picture connected to the evaluation of the perturbative series of QED and QFT.

Physics and poetry

"The aim of science is to make difficult things understandable in a simpler way; the aim of poetry is to state simple things in an incomprehensible way. The two are incompatible.”11. H. S. Kragh, Dirac: A Scientific Biography, Cambridge U. Press (1990), p. 258.Paul Dirac’s assertion to J. Robert Oppenheimer strikes me more as a witty aphorism than a heartfelt manifesto. Still, given that physicists and poets both strive for brevity and universality, it’s worth exploring the similarities and differences of their respective vocations.One commonality is youthful talent. The psychologist Dean Simonton has correlated the productivity of people in various intellectual occupations with their ages. Physicists, poets, and chess players tend to produce their best work early in their careers; novelists, biologists, and historians take longer to peak. A plausible explanation for the finding is that everyone’s intellectual ability is at its highest in their twenties. Practicing physics, poetry, and chess entails following a small set of clear rules, which can be acquired before one’s peak is past. It takes longer to obtain biology’s greater body of knowledge and to become comfortable with its fuzzier principles. Novelists need to observe a wide variety of life before they convincingly fictionalize it.Another property that poets and physicists share is an appreciation for symmetry. The rhyme and meter of traditional poetry make lines symmetric and therefore delightful to digest. Symmetry is an important principle in physics, as David Gross observed in his feature article “Symmetry in physics: Wigner’s legacy” (Physics Today, December 1995, page 46). Dirac and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar argued that mathematically neat formulations of physics were more likely to be valid than untidy ones.22. S. Chandrasekhar, Truth and Beauty: Aesthetics and Motivations in Science, U. Chicago Press (1987). Richard Feynman shared Chandrasekhar’s appreciation for the beauty of mathematics—to a point. “If it disagrees with experiment it’s wrong,” he told students at his alma mater, Cornell University. “That is all there is to it.”33. R. Feynman, The Character of Physical Law, MIT Press (1967), p. 156.Favoring beautiful theories over ugly ones is, in my view, a prejudice. Conceivably, the theory of everything that unites the forces of nature could be, not a shapely, exotically dimensioned edifice, but a kludgy extension of the standard model of particle physics.To research this essay, I trawled the Poetry Foundation’s online collection of poems for instances in which physical phenomena are put to poetic use. I found barely a handful. Metaphors and similes work by tying an abstraction to a concrete image. To convey the pain of ingratitude, Shakespeare had King Lear say, “How sharper than a serpent’s tooth it is to have a thankless child!” Physics is abstraction. Its use for metaphor and simile is limited.The finest poem I found was “My Physics Teacher”44. D. Wagoner, Poetry, November 1980, p. 91. by David Wagoner (1926–2021), which was published in 1980. The first verse describes a comically clumsy teacher’s failed physics demonstrations. The second and final verse continues:He believed in a World of Laws, where problems had answers,Where tangible objects and intangible forcesActing thereon could be lettered, numbered, and crammedThrough our tough skulls for lifetimes of homework.But his only uncontestable demonstrationCame with our last class: he broke his chalkOn a formula, stooped to catch it, knocked his foreheadOn the eraser-gutter, staggered slewfoot, and stuckOne foot forever into the wastebasket.Wagoner’s poem recounts a futile attempt to teach physics to someone who became a professional poet. Are Physics for Poets courses also futile? Jon Miller, with the University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research, and his collaborators have compared scientific literacy in the European Union, the US, and other countries.55. For a summary of Miller’s research, see A. Hobson, Phys. Teach. 46, 404 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2981285 The US came second to Sweden, a high ranking that Miller attributes to compulsory science courses for nonscience majors.ReferencesSection:ChooseTop of pageReferences <<1. H. S. Kragh, Dirac: A Scientific Biography, Cambridge U. Press (1990), p. 258. Google Scholar2. S. Chandrasekhar, Truth and Beauty: Aesthetics and Motivations in Science, U. Chicago Press (1987). Google ScholarCrossref3. R. Feynman, The Character of Physical Law, MIT Press (1967), p. 156. Google Scholar4. D. Wagoner, Poetry, November 1980, p. 91. Google Scholar5. For a summary of Miller’s research, see A. Hobson, Phys. Teach. 46, 404 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2981285, Google ScholarCrossref© 2022 American Institute of Physics.

Foreign Membership of the Royal Society: Schrödinger and Heisenberg?

Two pioneers of quantum mechanics, Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg, were both nominated by Paul Dirac for election to the Royal Society in 1945. At first there was considerable opposition to Heisenberg's election from Max Born, Rudolf Peierls and Francis Simon. These three physicists were all refugees from Germany who had reservations about Heisenberg's activities in World War II. Born gave strong support to Schrödinger's nomination but this was not the case with Peierls and Simon. In time, the opposition became more muted and Schrödinger was elected a Foreign Member in 1949. Heisenberg's subsequent efforts to rebuild science in West Germany and in Europe after the war were welcomed, and he was eventually elected a Foreign Member in 1955.

Hypersphere World-Universe Model: Centre of Our Galaxy

In 1937, Paul Dirac proposed: the Large Number Hypothesis and the Hypothesis of the variable gravitational “constant”; and later added the notion of continuous creation of Matter in the World. The developed Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) follows these ideas, albeit introducing a different mechanism of matter creation. In this paper, we show that WUM is a natural continuation of Classical Physics, and it can already serve as a basis for a New Cosmology proposed by Paul Dirac. In 2013, WUM predicted the values of the following Cosmological parameters: gravitational, concentration of intergalactic plasma, and the minimum energy of photons, which were experimentally confirmed in 2015-2018. “The Discovery of a Supermassive Compact Object at the Centre of Our Galaxy” (Nobel Prize in Physics 2020) made by Prof. R. Genzel and A. Ghez is a confirmation of one of the most important predictions of WUM in 2013: “Macroobjects of the World have cores made up of the discussed DM particles. Other particles, including DM and baryonic matter, form shells surrounding the cores”.

Review Article: Cosmology and Classical Physics

In 1937, Paul Dirac proposed Large Number Hypothesis and Hypothesis of Variable Gravitational Constant, and later added notion of Continuous Creation of Matter in the World. Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) follows these ideas, albeit introducing different mechanism of Matter creation. In this paper, we show that WUM is a natural continuation of Classical Physics. WUM is proposed as an alternative to prevailing Big Bang Model (BBM) that relies on General Relativity. WUM and BBM are principally different Models: 1) Instead of Initial Singularity with infinite energy density and extremely rapid expansion of spacetime (Inflation) in BBM; in WUM, there was Fluctuation (4D Nucleus of World with extrapolated radius equal to basic size unit of a) in Eternal Universe with finite extrapolated energy density (~104 less than nuclear density) and finite expansion of Nucleus in Its fourth spatial dimension with speed c that is gravitodynamic constant; 2) Instead of alleged practically Infinite Homogeneous and Isotropic Universe around Initial Singularity in BBM; in WUM, 3D Finite Boundless World (Hypersphere of 4D Nucleus) presents Patchwork Quilt of various Luminous Superclusters (&gE;103), which emerged in different places of World at different Cosmological times. Medium of World, consisting of protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and dark matter particles, is Homogeneous and Isotropic. Distribution of Macroobjects is spatially Inhomogeneous and Anisotropic and temporally Non-simultaneous. Most direct observational evidence of validity of WUM are: 1) Microwave Background Radiation and Intergalactic Plasma speak in favor of existence of Medium; 2) Laniakea Supercluster with binding mass ~1017M&odot; is home to Milky Way (MW) and ~105 other nearby galaxies, which did not start their movement from Initial Singularity; 3) MW is gravitationally bounded with Virgo Supercluster (VS) and has Orbital Angular Momentum that far exceeds its rotational angular momentum; 4) Mass-to-light ratio of VS is ~300 times larger than that of Solar ratio. Similar ratios are obtained for other superclusters. These ratios are main arguments in favor of presence of significant amounts of Dark Matter in the World. 5) Astronomers discovered the most distant galaxy HD1 that is ~13.5 Bly away. WUM predicts discovery of galaxies with a distance of ~13.8 Bly. Medium of World, Dark Matter, and Angular Momentum are main Three Pillars of WUM.

Quantum Legacies: Dispatches from an Uncertain World

Quantum Legacies: Dispatches from an Uncertain World

Simulating angular momentum of gravitational field of a rotating black hole and spin momentum of gravitational waves

In this research, we simulated the angular momentum of gravitational field of a rotating black hole and the spin momentum of gravitational waves emitted from the black hole. At first, we calculated energy densities of the rotating gravitational field and spinning gravitational waves as the vectors, which were projected on the spherical curved surface of the gravitational field and of the gravitational waves. Then we calculated the angular momentum and the spin momentum as the vectors perpendicular to the curved surface. The earlier research by Paul Dirac, published in 1964, did not select the curved surface to calculate the motion of quantum particles; but, instead, he chose the flat surface to develop the theory of quantum mechanics. However, we pursued the simulation of the gravitational waves in spherical polar coordinates that form the spherical curved surface of the gravitational waves. As a result, we found that a set of anti-symmetric vectors described the vectors that were perpendicular to the spherical curved surface, and with these vectors we simulated the angular momentum of the rotating black hole’s gravitational field and the spin momentum of gravitational waves. The obtained results describe the characteristics of the rotation of a black hole and of spinning gravitational waves.

Дираковский синтез квантовой механики и специальной теории относительности: интертеоретический контекст

One of the key episodes of the history of modern physics – Paul Dirac’s 1928 contrivance of the relativistic theory of the electron – in the context of lucid epistemological model of mature theory change is elicited. The peculiar character of Dirac’s synthesis of special relativity and quantum mechanics is revealed by comparison with Einstein’s methodology of the Gen- eral Relativity creation. The structure of Dirac’s scientific research programme and first and foremost the three pivotal principles that put up its heuristics is scrutinized with special emphasis on the “mathematical beauty”. It is contended that it was the general relativity genesis elicited in Eddington’s masterpiece “The Mathematical Theory of Relativity” that constituted Dirac’s synthetic paradigm with its emphasis on mathematical speculation, continual modification and generalization of the basic axioms and with the Clifford algebra and Weyl’s bispinors playing the dual lead of Riemannian geometry and Einstein’s metrical tensor. It is punctuated that in spite of the relentless Dirac’s remarks underestimating the role of philosophy one can trace its indirect influence through Arthur Eddington’s whimsical philosophy of science grounded on Hermann Weyl’s quasi-Husserlian epistemology. The basic stages of realization of Dirac’s research programme are elicited with a special emphasis on the crossbred (dual) objects’ construction.

Hypersphere World-Universe Model

Dirac’s themes were the unity and beauty of Nature. He identified three revolutions in modern physics: Relativity, Quantum Mechanics and Cosmology. In his opinion: “The new cosmology will probably turn out to be philosophically even more revolutionary than relativity or the quantum theory, perhaps looking forward to the current bonanza in cosmology, where precise observations on some of the most distant objects in the universe are shedding light on the nature of reality, on the nature of matter and on the most advanced quantum theories” [Farmelo, G. (2009) The Strangest Man. The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Mystic of the Atom. Basic Books, Britain, 661 p]. In 1937, Paul Dirac proposed the Large Number Hypothesis and the Hypothesis of the variable gravitational “constant”; and later added the notion of continuous creation of Matter in the World. The developed Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) follows these ideas, albeit introducing a different mechanism of matter creation. In this paper, we show that WUM is a natural continuation of Classical Physics and it can already serve as a basis for a New Cosmology proposed by Paul Dirac.