oxLDL Uptake Research Articles

Deletion of the asialyloglycoprotein receptor-1 (ASGR1) causes atheroprotective effects in vitro and in vivo

Abstract Introduction The asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 (ASGR1) is a hepatic receptor that clears desialylated glycoproteins from the circulation. A loss-of-function mutation in ASGR1 was reported to associate with a 34% reduction in coronary artery disease (CAD) risk, suggesting a role for ASGR1 in CAD. Aim To determine the role of ASGR1 in atherosclerosis and whether deletion of ASGR1 elicits atheroprotective effects. Methods Western blotting, mass spectrometry and flow cytometry assessed ASGR1 expression in cultured macrophages or immune cells collected from the blood and aortas of wildtype mice. Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from wildtype and Asgr1-/- mice were subjected to cholesterol efflux and oxidised low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) uptake in vitro functionalassays. ELISA and qPCR measured changes in lipid regulators in BMDMs. Asgr1-/- mice were crossed with atherosclerosis-prone apolipoprotein (Apo)e-/- mice (Apoe-/-Asgr1-/-). Stable plaque area was assessed histologically in the aortic sinuses of mice fed a high-cholesterol diet for 8 weeks (n=16/group). Using the tandem stenosis surgical model, unstable plaque was assessed in carotid arteries (n=10/group). Human ASGR1 was measured by ELISA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from patient samples (n=18). Results Western blotting and mass spectrometry discovered ASGR1 is expressed in macrophages. Immunofluorescence identified the presence of ASGR1 in aortic sinus plaque. Flow cytometry revealed ASGR1 is expressed in both inflammatory and patrolling monocytes, neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells of blood and aortas. Asgr1-/- BMDMs elicited greater cholesterol efflux (+39%, P<0.05) and decreased oxLDL uptake (-15%, P<0.05), compared to wildtype BMDMs. Moreover, Asgr1-/- BMDMs had significantly higher LDL receptor protein levels (+2-fold), and Lxra (+2-fold) and Pparg (+1.5-fold) mRNA levels than wildtype BMDMs, P<0.001. Plasma from Asgr1-/- mice had lower total (-25%, P<0.05) and LDL (-36%, P<0.05) cholesterol concentrations than wildtype mice. Apoe-/-Asgr1-/- mice developed less stable plaque in aortic sinuses (-37%, P<0.001) than Apoe-/- controls, as well as smaller unstable plaques in carotid arteries (-49%, P<0.05). Finally, in a human population, ASGR1 protein levels were higher in PBMCs from patients with coronary plaque (+61%, P<0.05), than those without plaque, determined from coronary angiograms. Conclusion ASGR1 is expressed on monocytes, macrophages and in plaques, and human PBMC ASGR1 associates with coronary plaque. Deletion of ASGR1 causes atheroprotective functions in macrophages in vitro and reduced plaque burden in vivo. Our findings demonstrate ASGR1 is important in atherosclerosis with implications for ASGR1 as a therapeutic target.

Mechanisms and consequences of myeloid adhesome dysfunction in atherogenesis.

In the context of atherosclerosis, macrophages exposed to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) exhibit cellular abnormalities, specifically in adhesome functions, yet the mechanisms and implications of these adhesive dysfunctions remain largely unexplored. This study reveals a significant depletion of Kindlin3 (K3) or Fermt3, an essential component of the adhesome regulating integrin functions, in macrophages located within atherosclerotic plaques in vivo and following oxLDL exposure in vitro. To examine the effects of K3 deficiency, the study utilized hyperlipidemic bone marrow chimeras devoid of myeloid Kindlin3 expression. Absence of myeloid K3 increased atherosclerotic plaque burden in the aortas in vivo and enhanced lipid accumulation and lipoprotein uptake in macrophages from Kindlin3-null chimeric mice in vitro. Importantly, re-expression of K3 in macrophages ameliorated these abnormalities.RNA sequencing of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) from K3-deficient mice revealed extensive deregulation in adhesion-related pathways, echoing changes observed in wild-type cells treated with oxLDL. Notably, there was an increase in Olr1 expression (encoding the Lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 or LOX1), a gene implicated in atherogenesis. The disrupted K3-integrin axis in macrophages led to a significant elevation in the LOX1 receptor, contributing to increased oxLDL uptake and foam cell formation. Inhibition of LOX1 normalized lipid uptake in Kindlin3 null macrophages. A similar proatherogenic phenotype, marked by increased macrophage LOX1 expression and foam cell formation, was observed in myeloid-specific Itgβ1-deficient mice but not in Itgβ2-deficient mice, underscoring the critical role of K3/Itgβ1 interaction. This study shows that the loss of Kindlin3 in macrophages upon exposure to oxLDL leads to adhesome dysfunction in atherosclerosis and reveals the pivotal role of Kindlin3 in macrophage function and its contribution to the progression of atherosclerosis, providing valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms that could be targeted for therapeutic interventions.

ADAMTS7 Promotes Smooth Muscle Foam Cell Expansion in Atherosclerosis.

Human genetic studies have repeatedly associated ADAMTS7 with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Subsequent investigations in mice demonstrated that ADAMTS7 is proatherogenic and induced in response to vascular injury and that the proatherogenicity of ADAMTS7, a secreted protein, is due to its catalytic activity. However, the cell-specific mechanisms governing ADAMTS7 proatherogenicity remain unclear. To determine which vascular cell types express ADAMTS7, we interrogated single-cell RNA sequencing of human carotid atherosclerosis and found ADAMTS7 expression in smooth muscle cells (SMCs), endothelial cells (ECs), and fibroblasts. We subsequently created SMC- and EC-specific Adamts7 conditional knockout and transgenic mice. Conditional knockout of Adamts7 in either cell type is insufficient to reduce atherosclerosis, whereas transgenic induction in either cell type increases atherosclerosis. In SMC transgenic mice, this increase coincides with an expansion of lipid-laden SMC foam cells and decreased fibrous cap formation. RNA-sequencing in SMCs revealed an upregulation of lipid uptake genes typically assigned to macrophages. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that ADAMTS7 increases SMC oxLDL uptake through increased CD36 levels. Furthermore, Cd36 expression is increased due to increased levels of PU.1, a transcription factor typically associated with myeloid fate determination. In summary, Adamts7 expression in either SMCs or ECs promotes SMC foam cell formation and atherosclerosis. In SMCs, ADAMTS7 promotes oxLDL uptake via increased PU.1 and Cd36 expression, thereby increasing SMC foam cell formation and atherosclerosis.

Siglec-5 as a novel receptor mediates endothelial cells oxLDL transcytosis to promote atherosclerosis

BackgroundExcessive subendothelial retention of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and subsequent oxLDL engulfment by macrophages leads to the formation of foam cells and the development of atherosclerosis. Our previous study showed that the plasma level of sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectin 5 (Siglec-5) was a novel biomarker for the prognosis of atherosclerosis in diabetic patients. However, the role and underlying mechanisms of Siglec-5 in atherosclerosis have not been elucidated. MethodsThe interaction between oxLDL and Siglec-5 was detected by fluorescence colocalization and coimmunoprecipitation. The effect of oxLDL on Siglec-5 expression was detected in endothelial cells and macrophages, and the effect of Siglec-5 on oxLDL transcytosis and uptake was investigated. Siglec-5 was overexpressed in mice using recombinant adeno-associated virus vector serotype 9 (rAAV9-Siglec-5) to evaluate the effect of Siglec-5 on oxLDL uptake and atherogenesis in vivo. In addition, the effects of Siglec-5 antibodies and soluble Siglec-5 proteins on oxLDL transcytosis and uptake and their role in atherogenesis were investigated in vivo and in vitro. ResultsWe found that oxLDL interacted with Siglec-5 and that oxLDL stimulated the expression of Siglec-5. Siglec-5 promotes the transcytosis and uptake of oxLDL, while both anti-Siglec-5 antibodies and soluble Siglec-5 protein attenuated oxLDL transcytosis and uptake. Interestingly, overexpression of Siglec-5 by recombinant adeno-associated viral vector serotype 9 (rAAV9-Siglec-5) promoted the retention of oxLDL in the aorta of C57BL/6 mice. Moreover, overexpression of Siglec-5 significantly accelerated the formation of atherosclerotic lesions in Apoe−/− mice. Moreover, both anti-Siglec-5 antibodies and soluble Siglec-5 protein significantly alleviated the retention of oxLDL in the aorta of rAAV9-Siglec-5-transfected C57BL/6 mice and the formation of atherosclerotic plaques in rAAV9-Siglec-5-transfected Apoe−/− mice. ConclusionOur results suggested that Siglec-5 was a novel receptor that mediated oxLDL transcytosis and promoted the formation of foam cells. Interventions that inhibit the interaction between oxLDL and Siglec-5, including anti-Siglec-5 antibody or soluble Siglec-5 protein treatment, may provide novel therapeutic strategies in treating atherosclerosis.

Hydrogen sulfide inhibits early development of atherosclerosis by modulating macrophage uptake of oxidized lipoproteins.

Atherosclerosis, a major cause of cardiovascular diseases, is characterized by the accumulation of oxidized lipoproteins (ox-LDL) within arterial walls, leading to inflammation and plaque formation. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has demonstrated anti-inflammatory and vascular protective properties, but its role in modulating macrophage endocytosis of ox-LDL and its impact on early atherosclerosis development remains unclear. Macrophage cultures were utilized for ox-LDL uptake experiments. Macrophages were pretreated with sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS) (50 μmol/L) or propargylglycine (PPG, 3 mmol/L) for 1 h, followed by incubation with DiI-ox-LDL (10 μg/mL) for an additional 2 h. DiI-ox-LDL uptake was visualized using live-cell imaging. The expression of scavenger receptors CD36 and SR-A was assessed through immunofluorescent staining and western blot analysis. To determine the intracellular signal transduction pathways involved, macrophages were pretreated with NF-κB pathway blocker pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate or MAPK inhibitor PD98059 before the addition of NaHS. NaHS significantly inhibited ox-LDL uptake by macrophages, while PPG treatment markedly increased this process. Immunocytochemistry and western blot analysis revealed that the expressions of CD36 and SR-A were induced by ox-LDL but inhibited by NaHS in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, H2S down-regulated ox-LDL receptors CD36 and SR-A through the NF-κB signal pathway. H2S inhibits early atherosclerosis development by modulating macrophage uptake of ox-LDL through the down-regulation of CD36 and SR-A receptors via the NF-κB signaling pathway. These findings provide new evidence for the role of H2S in atherosclerosis and its potential therapeutic value.

CAIP-Induced ROS Production Contributes to Sustaining Atherosclerotic Process Associated with Helicobacter cinaedi Infection through Macrophages and Endothelial Cells Activation.

Several lines of evidence have linked the intestinal bacterium Helicobacter cinaedi with the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, identifying the Cinaedi Antigen Inflammatory Protein (CAIP) as a key virulence factor. Oxidative stress and inflammation are crucial in sustaining the atherosclerotic process and oxidized LDL (oxLDL) uptake. Primary human macrophages and endothelial cells were pre-incubated with 10 µM diphenyl iodonium salt (DPI) and stimulated with 20 µg/mL CAIP. Lectin-like oxLDL receptor (LOX-1) expression was evaluated by FACS analysis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was measured using the fluorescent probe H2DCF-DA, and cytokine release was quantified by ELISA assay. Foam cells formation was assessed by Oil Red-O staining, and phosphorylation of p38 and ERK1/2 MAP kinases and NF-κB pathway activation were determined by Western blot. This study demonstrated that CAIP triggered LOX-1 over-expression and increased ROS production in both macrophages and endothelial cells. Blocking ROS abrogated LOX-1 expression and reduced LDL uptake and foam cells formation. Additionally, CAIP-mediated pro-inflammatory cytokine release was significantly affected by ROS inhibition. The signaling pathway induced by CAIP-induced oxidative stress led to p38 MAP kinase phosphorylation and NF-κB activation. These findings elucidate the mechanism of action of CAIP, which heightens oxidative stress and contributes to the atherosclerotic process in H. cinaedi-infected patients.

Multi-model analysis of gallbladder cancer reveals the role of OxLDL-absorbing neutrophils in promoting liver invasion

BackgroundGallbladder cancer (GBC) is the most common and lethal malignancy of the biliary tract that lacks effective therapy. In many GBC cases, infiltration into adjacent organs or distant metastasis happened long before the diagnosis, especially the direct liver invasion, which is the most common and unfavorable way of spreading.MethodsSingle-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), spatial transcriptomics (ST), proteomics, and multiplexed immunohistochemistry (mIHC) were performed on GBC across multiple tumor stages to characterize the tumor microenvironment (TME), focusing specifically on the preferential enrichment of neutrophils in GBC liver invasion (GBC-LI).ResultsMulti-model Analysis reveals the immunosuppressive TME of GBC-LI that was characterized by the enrichment of neutrophils at the invasive front. We identified the context-dependent transcriptional states of neutrophils, with the Tumor-Modifying state being associated with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) metabolism. In vitro assays showed that the direct cell-cell contact between GBC cells and neutrophils led to the drastic increase in oxLDL uptake of neutrophils, which was primarily mediated by the elevated OLR1 on neutrophils. The oxLDL-absorbing neutrophils displayed a higher potential to promote tumor invasion while demonstrating lower cancer cytotoxicity. Finally, we identified a neutrophil-promoting niche at the invasive front of GBC-LI that constituted of KRT17+ GBC cells, neutrophils, and surrounding fibroblasts, which may help cultivate the oxLDL-absorbing neutrophils.ConclusionsOur study reveals the existence of a subset of pro-tumoral neutrophils with a unique ability to absorb oxLDL via OLR1, a phenomenon induced through cell-cell contact with KRT17+ GBC cells in GBC-LI.

Induction of let-7d-5p miRNA modulates aortic smooth muscle inflammatory signaling and phenotypic switching

Background and aimsActivation of vascular smooth muscle cell inflammation is recognised as an important early driver of vascular disease. We have previously identified the let-7 miRNA family as important regulators of inflammation in in vitro and in vivo models of atherosclerosis. Here we investigated a dual statin/let-7d-5p miRNA combination therapy approach to target human aortic SMC (HAoSMC) activation and inflammation. MethodsIn vitro studies using primary HAoSMCs were performed to investigate the effects of let-7d-5p miRNA overexpression and inhibition. HAoSMCs were treated with combinations of the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and atorvastatin or lovastatin. HAoSMC Bulk RNA-seq transcriptomics of HAoSMCs revealed downstream regulatory networks modulated by let-7d-5p miRNA overexpression and statins. Proteome profiler cytokine array, Western blotting and quantitative PCR analyses were performed on HAoSMCs to validate key findings. ResultsLet-7d-5p overexpression significantly attenuated TNF-α-induced upregulation of IL-6, ICAM1, VCAM1, CCL2, CD68, MYOCD gene expression in HAoSMCs (p<0.05). Statins (atorvastatin, lovastatin) significantly attenuated inflammatory gene expression and upregulated Let-7d levels in HAoSMCs (p<0.05). Bulk RNA-seq analysis of a dual Let-7d-5p overexpression/statin therapy in HAoSMCs revealed that let-7d-5p activation and statins converge on key inflammatory pathways (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ). Let-7d-5p overexpression led to reduced expression of the ox-LDL receptor OLR1, and this was associated with lower ox-LDL uptake in HAoSMCs. In silico analysis of smooth muscle cell phenotypic switching shows that overexpression of let-7d-5p in HAoSMCs maintains a contractile phenotype. ConclusionsTargeting the Let-7 network alongside statins can modulate HAoSMC activation and attenuate key inflammatory pathway signals.

Abstract 3070: Investigating CD36 Oligomerization In Macrophages

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Atherosclerosis, the main cause of CVD, results from the buildup of cholesterol-filled plaques in artery walls. Accumulation of cholesterol from oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) leads to the formation of macrophage foam cells, a process that is mediated by CD36, a scavenger receptor that serves as the primary receptor for oxLDL. The structure of full-length CD36 has not been resolved, nor have the details or role of quaternary structure been fully elucidated. Studies have shown that CD36 has the ability to form homodimers and multimers in some cell types. However, the role of CD36 oligomerization in oxLDL uptake remains unknown. The goal of this study is to investigate CD36 oligomerization in macrophages, a cell type important in the initiation of atherosclerosis. We hypothesize that CD36 oligomerizes in macrophages to facilitate oxLDL uptake. To begin testing this hypothesis, we harvested elicited peritoneal macrophages from wild-type (WT) or CD36 knockout (CD36-KO) mice. We performed crosslinking experiments in which macrophages were incubated with BS3, a membrane-impermeable crosslinker, to stabilize CD36 oligomers. When crosslinked samples were separated by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis, we observed a decrease in monomeric species with increasing crosslinker concentration, however, BS3 also induced aggregation of CD36 rather than oligomer formation. We next turned to Native-PAGE electrophoresis, which lacks detergent entirely, to identify oligomeric species within macrophages, as well as PFO-PAGE electrophoresis, which contains a milder detergent than SDS. Both methods provided evidence of higher-order complexes in WT, but not in CD36-KO macrophages. To further validate our studies, we purified human full-length CD36 using an Sf9 insect cell system and demonstrated that pure CD36 forms homo-oligomers by PFO-PAGE. Together, these experiments provide strong evidence for CD36 oligomerization. Future studies will focus on correlating CD36 oligomerization with its functions in oxLDL binding and uptake. Understanding the higher-order structure of CD36 and how it impacts function will allow us to target CD36 to prevent foam cell formation and atherosclerosis.

Abstract 160: Macrophage-specific Ablation Of Bmal1 Regulates Cholesterol Transport And Enhances Atherosclerosis

We have previously shown that global and liver-specific Bmal1 deficient mice develop enhanced atherosclerosis. Macrophages play a critical role in atherosclerosis, yet the role of macrophage Bmal1 in cholesterol uptake, intracellular transport and atherosclerosis remains unknown. Here, we used global and macrophage-specific Bmal1 deficient mice to clarify the role of macrophage Bmal1 in atherosclerosis. We found that macrophage-specific Bmal1 deficient mice show increased atherosclerosis. Mechanistically, Bmal1 deficient macrophages exhibited: (1) increased expression of Lox-1 and Cd36 and uptake of oxLDL; (2) decreased expression of Abca1 and Abcg1 and reduced cholesterol efflux, and reverse cholesterol transport; and (3) diminished export of free cholesterol from lysosomes due to reduced expression of Npc1 and Npc2. Molecular studies showed that Bmal1 directly regulates Npc1 and Npc2 by binding to E-boxes in their promoters, whereas it indirectly regulates Abca1 and Abcg1 by regulating ZNF202. Furthermore, we provide evidence that Bmal1 interacts with both Clock and Npas2 to regulate ZNF202, Npc1 and Npc2. Our data demonstrate that macrophage Bmal1 is a key regulator of oxLDL uptake, lysosomal cholesterol export, and cholesterol efflux, and, therefore, plays a crucial role in the prevention of atherosclerosis.

Abstract 1036: Mechanisms Of Foamy Monocyte Formation In Atherosclerosis

Diseases linked to atherosclerosis are the leading cause of death in the United States. Transmigration of monocytes across the endothelial layer and their differentiation into macrophages play an important role in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. These monocyte-derived macrophages internalize modified LDL in the arterial wall and drive the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Recent studies have shown that pharmacological depletion of foamy monocytes inhibits atherosclerosis development in mice, identifying monocyte uptake of plasma LDL as a therapeutic target in atherosclerosis. However, the precise mechanisms by which monocytes internalize plasma LDL remain unknown. The goal of our study was to investigate the role, and relative contribution, of macropinocytosis and scavenger receptors ( Cd36 and Sr-a ) to foamy monocyte formation. The presence of foamy monocytes was confirmed in hypercholesterolemic mice and humans via flow cytometry analysis of Nile Red fluorescence. High resolution scanning electron microscopy and flow cytometry analysis of dextran internalization confirmed macropinocytosis stimulation in THP-1 and primary murine monocytes. Stimulation of macropinocytosis in monocytes induced uptake of both native LDL and oxLDL, leading to foamy monocyte formation in vitro . Pharmacological (EIPA) and genetic inhibition of macropinocytosis ( Lysm - CreER T2+/- Nhe1 -/- ) inhibited foamy monocyte formation (58.9%) in hypercholesterolemic mice in vivo . RT-PCR confirmed expression of Cd36 and Sr-a in monocytes and deletion of Cd36 and Sr-a inhibited foamy monocyte formation in hypercholesterolemic mice (10.3%) compared to wild type controls. FACS and bulk RNA sequencing characterized monocyte subsets including classical, intermediate, and non-classical monocytes in hypercholesterolemic Cd36 -/- / Sr-a -/- and Lysm - CreER T2+/- Nhe1 -/- mice and their respective wild type controls. Mechanistic studies identified NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2) and downstream redox regulation of actin-cytoskeleton as a major stimulator of monocyte macropinocytosis. These results provide novel insights into the mechanisms of foamy monocyte formation and potentially identify new therapeutic targets in the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Abstract 2067: Myeloid Cell Lgr4 Contributes To Atherosclerotic Lesion Formation

Background: R-Spondin 2 (RSPO2), a matricellular protein, primarily functions via binding to cell surface receptors including leucine-rich repeat-containing G protein-coupled receptor (LGR) 4, 5, and 6. We previously identified elevated RSPO2 levels in both human and mouse atherosclerotic arteries. Our preliminary experiments demonstrated increased expression of LGR4 in human atherosclerotic aortic segments, identified Lgr4 as the major RSPO2’s receptor in primary murine macrophages, and atherogenic molecule oxLDL stimulated LGR4 levels in macrophages. However, the precise role of macrophage LGR4 in atherosclerosis development is unknown. Methods and Results: We generated novel myeloid cell-specific Lgr4 knockout mice ( Lgr4 fl/fl LysM Cre +/- , Lgr4 ΔM ) by breeding Lgr4 fl/fl mice with LysM Cre +/- mice. AAV8-h PCSK9 -injected Lgr4 ΔM and littermate control Lgr4 fl/fl ( Lgr4 WT ) were fed a Western diet (16 weeks) to investigate for atherosclerosis. Oil red O (ORO) staining of whole aortas (en face) and aortic root sections showed reduced atherosclerosis in male Lgr4 ΔM mice compared with sex-matched Lgr4 WT mice. Further histochemical staining performed on aortic root sections revealed smaller necrotic cores in Lgr4 ΔM mice. However, there were no significant differences in plasma total cholesterol and body weight. Interestingly, male Lgr4 ΔM mice had decreased fat mass percentage, blood glucose, and epididymal adipose tissue weight. Initial studies with female mice ( n = 4/group) demonstrated no differences in atherosclerosis and metabolic parameters. Additional in vitro studies exhibited that RSPO2 treatment induces oxLDL uptake, reduces efferocytic capacity, and promotes activation of VASP protein (inducer of actin aggregates) in macrophages. Further, the deletion of Lgr4 reduces lipid accumulation in macrophages. Conclusions: Taken together, these findings suggest that deletion of myeloid cell Lgr4 suppresses atherosclerotic lesion formation and identify Lgr4 as a novel therapeutic target for atherosclerosis.

Abstract 1042: Vascular Adamts7 Promotes Smooth Muscle Foam Cell Formation During Atherosclerosis

Human genetic studies have linked the gene ADAMTS7 with coronary artery disease. In vivo studies in mice demonstrate that ADAMTS7 is proatherogenic, active in smooth muscle cells (SMCs), and induced in response to vascular injury. However, the mechanisms governing its proatherogenicity remain unclear. We generated an SMC specific Adamts7 transgenic mouse (TG_SMC) to mimic the induction of vascular ADAMTS7. This mouse was crossed onto the LDL KO background, and after 16 weeks of western diet feeding, TG_SMC mice had a 3.5-fold increase in en-face plaque (p &lt; 0.01) compared to controls. TG_SMC aortas showed a 3-fold increase in foam cells (p = 0.013) as measured by flow cytometry, and 80% of these cells were SMCs. Subsequent ex vivo studies show increased oxLDL uptake in TG_SMC primary SMCs (1.15x, p &lt; 0.01).To determine the underlying mechanism, we performed RNA-seq on primary SMCs and found that TG_SMCs have increased expression of lipid handling genes (Cd36, Fabp5, Trem2). Upstream regulator analysis identified the transcription factor PU.1 as a potential mediator of these changes, and siRNA knockdown of PU.1 attenuated the gene expression increases. Additionally, siRNA knockdown of Cd36, the most upregulated gene, and a known oxLDL receptor, ameliorated the Adamts7-mediated rise in SMC lipid uptake.We next generated an Adamts7 SMC-specific knockout model to test if SMC ADAMTS7 is solely responsible for its proatherogenic effect. Surprisingly, SMC-specific Adamts7 knockout did not affect atherosclerosis in mice. We performed RNAscope on atherosclerotic LDLR KO mice and found that Adamts7 is also expressed in endothelial cells (ECs) during atherogenesis. We bred our hyperlipidemic TG model to the EC-specific Cdh5-CreERT2 and found that EC overexpression of Adamts7 also increases en face plaque burden and foam cell formation (1.5x, p&lt;0.05), demonstrating that vascular Adamts7, regardless of the source, increases atherosclerosis. In summary, our results indicate that Adamts7 promotes lipid uptake in vascular SMCs, thus revealing a novel mechanism through which ADAMTS7 mediates atherogenesis. Our findings support the growing body of literature demonstrating that therapeutic targeting of ADAMTS7 is a potential approach to reducing atherosclerosis.

Nalmefene, an opioid receptor modulator, aggravates atherosclerotic plaque formation in apolipoprotein E knockout mice by enhancing oxidized low-density lipoprotein uptake in macrophages

Nalmefene, an antagonist of mu- and delta-opioid receptors and a partial agonist of kappa-opioid receptors, has shown promise in reducing alcohol consumption among patients with alcohol dependence. Opioid receptors play pivotal roles in various physiological processes, including those related to peripheral inflammatory diseases such as colitis and arthritis, as well as functions in the immune system and phagocytosis. Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease, progresses through the phagocytosis and uptake of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) by macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques. Despite this knowledge, it remains unclear whether nalmefene influences the formation of atherosclerotic plaques and increases the risk of serious cardiovascular events. This study aims to elucidate the impact of nalmefene on atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE KO) mice and peritoneal macrophages in vitro.In this experiment, 8-week-old male ApoE KO mice were fed a high-fat diet intraperitoneally administered either vehicle (saline) or nalmefene (1 mg and 3 mg kg−1 day−1) for 21 days. Oil red O-staining and immunohistochemistry with an anti-MOMA2 (monocyte/macrophage) antibody showed that a dose-dependent increase in atherosclerotic plaque formation and augmentation of macrophage-rich plaque formation in ApoE-KO mice. Further investigations focused on the effects of nalmefene on the expression of scavenger receptor CD36 in RAW264.7 cells, conducted through western blotting analysis. Nalmefene demonstrated a significant increase in CD36 protein expression in RAW264.7 cells. To explore the impact on oxidized LDL uptake in peritoneal macrophages, cells were treated with nalmefene (300 μg/mL) for 24 h, followed by the addition of DiI-labeled oxLDL (DiI-oxLDL) for 4 h. Nalmefene significantly enhanced DiI-oxLDL uptake in macrophages. Additionally, treatment with nalmefene (300 μg/mL) for 24 h decreased the mRNA expression of mu-, delta-, and kappa-opioid receptors in RAW264.7 cells.In conclusion, nalmefene may augment oxLDL uptake by macrophages through increased CD36 expression and decreased opioid receptor, thereby contributing to atherosclerotic plaque formation and vulnerability. Consequently, the use of nalmefene may be associated with an elevated risk of cardiovascular events.

The long coiled-coil protein NECC2 regulates oxLDL-induced endothelial oxidative damage and exacerbates atherosclerosis development in apolipoprotein E −/− mice

Oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL)-induced endothelial oxidative damage promotes the development of atherosclerosis. Caveolae play an essential role in maintaining the survival and function of vascular endothelial cell (VEC). It is reported that the long coiled-coil protein NECC2 is localized in caveolae and is associated with neural cell differentiation and adipocyte formation, but its role in VECs needs to be clarified. Our results showed NECC2 expression increased in the endothelium of plaque-loaded aortas and oxLDL-treated HUVECs. Down-regulation of NECC2 by NECC2 siRNA or compound YF-307 significantly inhibited oxLDL-induced VEC apoptosis and the adhesion factors expression. Remarkably, inhibition of NECC2 expression in the endothelium of apoE−/− mice by adeno-associated virus (AAV)-carrying NECC2 shRNA or compound YF-307 alleviated endothelium injury and restricted atherosclerosis development. The immunoprecipitation results confirmed that NECC2 interacted with Tyk2 and caveolin-1(Cav-1) in VECs, and NECC2 further promoted the phosphorylation of Cav-1 at Tyr14 b y activating Tyk2 phosphorylation. On the other hand, inhibiting NECC2 levels suppressed oxLDL-induced phosphorylation of Cav-1, uptake of oxLDL by VECs, accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species and activation of NF-κB. Our findings suggest that NECC2 may contribute to oxLDL-induced VEC injury and atherosclerosis via modulating Cav-1 phosphorylation through Tyk2. This work provides a new concept and drug target for treating atherosclerosis.

Hawthorn leaf flavonoids alleviate the deterioration of atherosclerosis by inhibiting SCAP-SREBP2-LDLR pathway through sPLA2-ⅡA signaling in macrophages in mice

Ethnopharmacological relevanceHawthorn leaves are a combination of the dried leaves of the Rosaceae plants, i.e., Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. or Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. var. major N. E. Br., is primarily cultivated in East Asia, North America, and Europe. hawthorn leaf flavonoids (HLF) are the main part of extraction. The HLF have demonstrated potential in preventing hypertension, inflammation, hyperlipidemia, and atherosclerosis. However, the potential pharmacological mechanism behind its anti-atherosclerotic effect has yet to be explored. Aim of the studyThe in vivo and in vitro effects of HLF on lipid-mediated foam cell formation were investigated, with a specific focus on the levels of secreted phospholipase A2 type IIA (sPLA2-II A) in macrophage cells. Materials and methodsThe primary constituents of HLF were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In vivo, HLF, at concentrations of 5 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg, and 40 mg/kg, were administered to apolipoprotein E knockout mice (ApoE−/−) fed by high-fat diet (HFD) for 16 weeks. Aorta and serum samples were collected to identify lesion areas and lipids through mass spectrometry analysis to dissect the pathological process. RAW264.7 cells were incubated with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) alone, or ox-LDL combined with different doses of HLF (100, 50, and 25 μg/ml), or ox-LDL plus 24-h sPLA2-IIA inhibitors, for cell biology analysis. Lipids and inflammatory cytokines were detected using biochemical analyzers and ELISA, while plaque size and collagen content of plaque were assessed by HE and the Masson staining of the aorta. The lipid deposition in macrophages was observed by Oil Red O staining. The expression of sPLA2-IIA and SCAP-SREBP2-LDLR was determined by RT-qPCR and Western blot analysis. ResultsThe chemical profile of HLF was studied using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, allowing the tentative identification of 20 compounds, comprising 1 phenolic acid, 9 flavonols and 10 flavones, including isovitexin, vitexin-4″-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-robibioside, rutin, vitexin-2″-O-rhamnoside, quercetin, etc. HLF decreased total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) levels in ApoE−/− mice (P < 0.05), reduced ox-LDL uptake, inhibited level of inflammatory factors, such as IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, and IL-1ꞵ (P < 0.001), and alleviated aortic plaques with a thicker fibrous cap. HLF effectively attenuated foam cell formation in ox-LDL-treated RAW264.7 macrophages, and reduced levels of intracellular TC, free cholesterol (FC), cholesteryl ester (CE), IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β (P < 0.001). In both in vivo and in vitro experiments, HLF significantly downregulated the expression of sPLA2-IIA, SCAP, SREBP2, LDLR, HMGCR, and LOX-1 (P < 0.05). Furthermore, sPLA2-IIA inhibitor effectively mitigated inflammatory release in RAW264.7 macrophages and regulated SCAP-SREBP2-LDLR signaling pathway by inhibiting sPLA2-IIA secretion (P < 0.05). ConclusionHLF exerted a protective effect against atherosclerosis through inhibiting sPLA2-IIA to diminish SCAP-SREBP2-LDLR signaling pathway, to reduce LDL uptake caused foam cell formation, and to slow down the progression of atherosclerosis in mice.

Uptake of ox-LDL by binding to LRP6 mediates oxidative stress-induced BMSCs senescence promoting obesity-related bone loss

Obesity has long been thought to be a main cause of hyperlipidemia. As a systemic disease, the impact of obesity on organs, tissues and cells is almost entirely negative. However, the relationship between obesity and bone loss is highly controversial. On the one hand, obesity has long been thought to have a positive effect on bone due to increased mechanical loading on the skeleton, conducive to increasing bone mass to accommodate the extra weight. On the other hand, obesity-related metabolic oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in vivo causes a gradual increase of oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) in the bone marrow microenvironment. We have reported that low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) acts as a receptor of ox-LDL and mediates the bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) uptake of ox-LDL. We detected elevated serum ox-LDL in obese mice. We found that ox-LDL uptake by LRP6 led to an increase of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in BMSCs, and N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) alleviated the cellular senescence and impairment of osteogenesis induced by ox-LDL. Moreover, LRP6 is a co-receptor of Wnt signaling. We found that LRP6 preferentially binds to ox-LDL rather than dickkopf-related protein 1 (DKK1), both inhibiting Wnt signaling and promoting BMSCs senescence. Mesoderm development LRP chaperone (MESD) overexpression inhibits ox-LDL binding to LRP6, attenuating oxidative stress and BMSCs senescence, eventually rescuing bone phenotype.

Functional role of Ash2l in oxLDL induced endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis

Endothelial injury and dysfunction in the artery wall fuel the process of atherosclerosis. As a key epigenetic regulator, Ash2l (Absent, small, or homeotic-Like 2) is involved in regulating vascular injury and its complications. However, the role of Ash2l in atherosclerosis has not yet been fully elucidated. Here, we found increased Ash2l expression in high-cholesterol diet-fed ApoE−/− mice and oxidized LDL (oxLDL) treated endothelial cells (ECs). Furthermore, Ash2l promoted the scavenger receptors transcription by catalyzing histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) trimethylation at the promoter region of transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) and triggered the activation of the pro-inflammatory nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) by enhancing interaction between CD36 and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Meanwhile, enhanced expression of scavenger receptors drove more oxLDL uptake by ECs. In vivo studies revealed that ECs-specific Ash2l knockdown reduced atherosclerotic lesion formation and promoted fibrous cap stability in the aorta of ApoE−/− mice, which was partly associated with a reduced endothelial activation by suppressing scavenger receptors and the uptake of lipids by ECs. Collectively, our findings identify Ash2l as a novel regulator that mediates endothelial injury and atherosclerosis. Targeting Ash2l may provide valuable insights for developing novel therapeutic candidates for atherosclerosis.Graphical

Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein: Preparation, Validation, and Use in Cell Models.

Lipoproteins in plasma are constituted by the least dense chylomicron, very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) that can be separated using commercially available medium such as iodixanol. Iodixanol constitutes the self-generated density gradient to fractionate lipoproteins by rapid ultracentrifugation method, replacing time-consuming protocols. Filling the centrifuge tubes is technically easier and faster than layering salt gradients and is reproducible. The separated lipoproteins by this method are closest to the native state with 80 to 100% recovery possible. Low-density lipoprotein is the major carrier of cholesterol in systemic circulation. The plasma isolated LDL is purified to be used as native LDL and for the preparation of oxidized LDL (oxLDL). The oxLDL is characterized for its oxidation, by various methods based on assay of the lipid and protein oxidation products such as TBARS, conjugated diene formation, and by other methods such as agarose gel electrophoresis. Rapid isolation of LDL particles from human plasma is useful for lipid peroxidation studies, characterization of subclass for functional studies and clinical correlation especially in cardiovascular diseases apart from lipidomic, and proteomic studies. OxLDL preparations are done in vitro chiefly based on copper-induced oxidation; glucose and other prooxidants. Which are used for various studies using animal model and in vitro cell modelsespecially to understand macrophage-mediated atheroma formation, vascular endothelial cell dysfunction, cell signaling studies has scope for extensive researchin metabolic dysfunction of various cells.This chapter deals with one of the applications in the in vitro cell models using macrophage (THP-1 cell line) and human retinal pigment epithelial cell (ARPE-19 cell line) to study the oxLDL uptake using fluorescently labeled oxidized LDL (DiI-oxLDL).

2-(2-Phenylethyl)chromone-enriched extract of Chinese agarwood (Aquilaria sinensis) inhibits atherosclerosis progression through endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated CD36 expression in macrophages

Ethnopharmacological relevanceChinese agarwood, derived from the Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Gilg (Thymelaeaceae), has a long history of use in Traditional Chinese Medicine for the management of cardiovascular disease. However, the specific active ingredients responsible for its impact on atherosclerosis are yet to be fully understood.Aim of the study: The aim of this study is to investigate the anti-atherosclerotic effectiveness of the 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone-enriched extract derived from Chinese agarwood (CPE) through the ER stress-mediated CD36 pathway. Materials and methodsTo assess the effectiveness of CPE, an atherosclerotic mouse model was established using ApoE−/− mice with a high-fat diet. Then we assessed the impact of CPE on lipid accumulation in THP-1 macrophages that were exposed to oxLDL. Subsequently, the effect of CPE on the expression of CD36 and markers related to ER stress was characterized. ResultsOur in vivo research confirmed that CPE effectively reduces the formation of aortic plaques in atherosclerotic ApoE−/− mice. Additionally, our in vitro study observed that CPE inhibits the uptake of oxLDL and hinders the generation of foam cells. This effect is achieved by downregulating the level of CD36 in macrophages. Furthermore, our study revealed that the increase in CD36 expression, resulting from oxLDL exposure, is governed by the activation of JNK1/2/3 signaling pathways and the initiation of ER stress. ConclusionCPE demonstrated significant efficacy to inhibit the atherosclerosis. The ER stress/P-JNK/PPARγ/CD36 signaling pathway plays critical involvement in modulating the foam cell formation in vitro and in vivo. These findings underscore the efficacy of CPE as a viable therapeutic intervention for the treatment of atherosclerosis.