Outlet Lobes Research Articles

Late Quaternary glacial maxima in southern Patagonia: insights from the Lago Argentino glacier lobe

Abstract. Determining the timing and extent of Quaternary glaciations around the globe is critical to understanding the drivers behind climate change and glacier fluctuations. Evidence from the southern mid-latitudes indicates that local glacial maxima preceded the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), implying that feedbacks in the climate system or ice dynamics played a role beyond the underlying orbital forcings. To shed light on these processes, we investigated the glacial landforms shaped and deposited by the Lago Argentino glacier (50° S), an outlet lobe of the former Patagonian Ice Sheet, in southern Argentina. We mapped geomorphological features on the landscape and dated moraine boulders and outwash sediments using 10Be cosmogenic nuclides and feldspar infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) to constrain the chronology of glacial advance and retreat. We report that the Lago Argentino glacier lobe reached more extensive limits prior to the global LGM, advancing during the middle to late Pleistocene between 243–132 ka and during Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3), culminating at 44.5 ± 8.0 and at 36.6 ± 1.0 ka. Our results indicate that the most extensive advance of the last glacial cycle occurred during MIS 3, and we hypothesize that this was a result of longer and colder winters, as well as increased precipitation delivered by a latitudinal migration of the Southern Westerly Winds belt, highlighting the role of local and regional climate feedbacks in modulating ice mass changes in the southern mid-latitudes.

Responses of small mountain glaciers in the Maritime Alps (south-western European Alps) to climatic changes during the Last Glacial Maximum

We present new chronological data and Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) information for palaeoglaciers in the Maritime Alps during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the early deglaciation. Three relatively small catchments were investigated to test if the response of small (1–10 km2) glaciers to LGM climatic forcing was distinguishable from that of larger glacial systems. Palaeoglacier geometries and ELAs were reconstructed using geomorphological evidence and toolboxes in a geographic information system. Chronological control was provided through 10Be surface exposure dating of erratic boulders located on frontal and lateral moraine ridges. Our data indicate two phases of glacier advance or stabilisation in the Maritime Alps, the first occurring at ca. 25 to 24 ka and the second at ca. 20.5 to 19 ka. This is consistent with ages that have been reported from larger outlet lobes along the south-western Alpine fringe, where the second LGM advance is usually preserved in the form of a recessional moraine. Within the uncertainty of the dating technique, there are no distinguishable differences between the responses of small and large Alpine glaciers to the LGM climate. The reconstructed ELAs for palaeoglaciers in the Maritime Alps indicate a considerable variability, which appears to be linked to differences in received solar radiation, from ca. 1600 m a.s.l. for north-facing cirque glaciers to almost 2000 m a.s.l. for glaciers with a southerly aspect. We argue that such influence of solar radiation needs to be considered when using ELAs for palaeoclimatic inferences at regional scales. The calculated ELAs are up to 450 m higher than those in the northern Apennines or the Corsican mountains, indicating a relatively dry LGM climate on the Italian side of the Maritime Alps.

The Glacial Geomorphology of the Ice Cap Piedmont Lobe Landsystem of East Mýrdalsjökull, Iceland

A surficial geology and geomorphology map of the forelands of the Sandfellsjökull and Oldufellsjökull piedmont lobes of the east Mýrdalsjökull ice cap is used to characterise the historical and modern landscape imprint in a glacial landsystems context. This serves as a modern analogue for palaeoglaciological reconstructions of ice cap systems that operated outlet lobes of contrasting dynamics, but the subtle variability in process-form regimes is encoded in the geomorphology. The landsystems of the two piedmont lobes reflect significantly different process-form regimes, and hence contrasting historical glacier dynamics, despite the fact that they are nourished by the same ice cap. The Sandfellsjökull landsystem displays the diagnostic criteria for active temperate glacier operation, including arcuate assemblages of inset minor push moraines and associated flutings, kame terrace and ice-dammed lake deposits, linear sandar directed by overridden moraine arcs, and since 1945, features, such as ice-cored, pitted, and glacially pushed outwash fans that are linked to englacial esker networks representative of recession into an overdeepening. Moraine plan forms have also changed from weakly crenulated and discontinuous curvilinear ridges to sawtooth features and crevasse-squeeze ridges and till eskers in response to changing proglacial drainage conditions. The Oldufellsjökull landsystem displays subtle signatures of jökulhlaup-driven surges, including sparse and widely spaced moraine clusters that are separated by exceptionally long flutings. The subtlety of the surge imprint at Oldufellsjökull was recognised only by comparison with nearby Sandfellsjökull, suggesting that palaeo-surging has likely been under-estimated in the ancient landform record. Hence, the simple imprint of sparse and widely spaced moraine clusters that are separated by exceptionally long flutings should be included as possible surge-diagnostic criteria.

The Last Glacial Maximum and deglaciation in central Patagonia, 44°S–49°S

This paper reviews published geochronological data on glacier fluctuations and environmental changes in central Patagonia (44° S - 49° S) from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) through to the Holocene. Well-dated glacial chronologies from the southern mid-latitudes can inform on the synchronicity of glacial advances worldwide and provide insight on the drivers of southern hemisphere glaciations. In central Patagonia, two large outlet lobes of the former Patagonian Ice Sheet advanced in broad synchrony with the global LGM. In contrast to other parts of Patagonia, there is no convincing evidence for a more extensive local LGM advance during Marine Isotope Stage 3. Deglaciation initiated at ca. 19 ka, earlier than in other parts of Patagonia and regionally in the Southern Hemisphere, and rapid deglaciation saw ice margins retreat in places by at least 80-120 km within a few millennia. The Lateglacial glacier margins are poorly constrained, but an ice mass substantial enough to maintain a large regional proglacial lake must have persisted at this time. The timing of lake drainage and opening of the Río Baker drainage route to the Pacific Ocean is debated; the only directly dated shoreline suggests this occurred at the end of the Antarctic Cold Reversal at 12.7 ka. Palaeoecological evidence for cooling during the Antarctic Cold Reversal or Younger Dryas remains equivocal, which may reflect both the eurythermic nature of Patagonian vegetation and shifting Southern Westerly Winds. Eastern outlet glaciers appear to have advanced or stabilised at the Lateglacial/Holocene transition when palaeoenvironmental records indicate warmer and drier conditions, but the reason for this is unclear. Our review reveals both spatial and temporal gaps in available data that provide avenues for future research.

The glaciation of Dartmoor: the southernmost independent Pleistocene ice cap in the British Isles

The granite uplands of Dartmoor have traditionally been considered to be relict permafrost and periglacial landscapes that lay beyond the limits of Quaternary glaciations but a variety of landform evidence indicates that a plateau icefield existed on the northern part of the moor, constituting the southernmost independent ice cap in the British Isles. Overdeepened or weakly U-shaped valley segments fringing north Dartmoor document an early, extensive phase of glaciation but the most convincing landform evidence relates to more recent, valley-based glacier occupancy. A moraine ridge on the Slipper Stones represents the most unequivocal palaeo-glacier on north Dartmoor with a palaeo-ELA of c.460 m above sea level (asl), although this relates to the youngest and most restricted phase of glaciation. A longer term ELA is likely to be represented by the Corn Ridge proto-cirque at 370–410 m asl. More extensive valley glaciers are recorded in each of the major drainage basins of north Dartmoor by arcuate and linear bouldery ridges and hummocky valley floor drift, which are interpreted as latero-frontal moraines deposited by outlet lobes of a plateau icefield. Recession of these lobes is marked by inset sequences of such ridges and occasional meltwater channels. Plateau ice was predominantly thin and protective, and snowblow and preferential accumulation in valley heads facilitated the modest glacial erosion and debris transport recorded in the landforms and sediments. It is proposed that the highest plateaux have been occupied by ice for the longest cumulative period of time throughout the Quaternary (“average glacial conditions”), explaining the distribution of different tor types on northern Dartmoor. This also explains the lack of tors on the most expansive of the highest plateau terrain (ice dispersal centres) as the product of: a) average glacial conditions preferentially removing tors or dampening their production rates; b) the survival of high relief (Type 1) tors during glaciation if they occupy summits too narrow to develop significant plateau icefields and/or ridges that are bypassed by faster moving ice in adjacent deep valleys; and c) the survival of subdued (Type 2) tors in areas glaciated less regularly during the Quaternary. Simple ice flow modelling indicates that a plateau icefield type glaciation is required for significant ice flow to occur and confirms thin ice cover, in particular on narrow summits, thereby supporting the explanation of tor class distribution. The modelling allows us to spatially correlate the geomorphological evidence of margin positions into two major stages and further indicates a strong altitude–mass balance feedback leading to an ice cap that is not in balance with its climate and with an extent that is limited by the length of the cold phases rather than their severity.

Lacustrine sediments in Porter Cave, Central Indiana, USA and possible relation to Laurentide ice sheet marginal positions in the middle and late Wisconsinan

Proglacial lakes formed in the late Quaternary with the advance of the Laurentide ice sheet into Mill Creek Valley of central Indiana. These lakes backfilled into the mouth of Porter Cave deposited organic matter and thinly bedded silty sediment that conforms to the underlying cave floor and shelves. Optical and radiocarbon ages indicate that deposition of fine-grained sediments into Porter Cave occurred in two proglacial lake phases during marine oxygen isotope stage (MIS) 3 (ca. 40 to 30 cal. ka) and MIS 2 (ca. 27 to 18 cal. ka), the latter phase is consistent with other proxy evidence for ice sheet extent and timing. We contend that the ice sheet lobe that dammed a proglacial lake during MIS 3 in central Indiana was ~ 7 km behind the Last Glacial Maximum limit based on current topography. This conclusion is in opposition to previous assessments which infer ice free conditions in central Illinois and central Indiana ca. 130 to 25 ka. The paucity of MIS 3 deposits may be due to erosion by the more extensive MIS 2 ice sheet, with glacial-lacustrine sediments preserved in the protective confines of Porter Cave. This outlet lobe in central Indiana may be short lived and reflects a variable response of lobes of the Laurentide ice sheet during MIS 3, with expansion possibly associated with cooling during Heinrich event 4.

Palaeo‐ice streams and the subglacial landscape mosaic of the North American mid‐continental prairies

The analysis of the glacial landscape of southern Saskatchewan (Canada) through multiple data sets (e.g. digital elevation model, till compositional data) has revealed previously unrecognized subglacial sediment–landform assemblages. A southwest‐trending corridor of mega‐scale till lineations (Maskwa corridor) bounded on each side by hummocky terrain extends from the Canadian Shield to southwestern Saskatchewan. This landform assemblage is clearly cross‐cut by a broad south to southeast trending corridor (Buffalo corridor) consisting of subparallel curvilinear till ridges. The carbonate content of the surface till is spatially consistent within these assemblages, suggesting a strong sediment–landform relationship. The two corridors are interpreted as the product of palaeo‐ice streams. The Maskwa palaeo‐ice stream flowed up the regional slope and across preglacial valleys, indicating it was thick and stable. Narrow dispersal trains extending across as well as down‐glacier from the Athabasca Basin suggest that the Maskwa palaeo‐ice stream extended far into the ice sheet across contrasting shield and platform terrains. In comparison, the Buffalo palaeo‐ice stream was thinner and largely controlled by subglacial geology and topography. Its catchments were located at the Canadian Shield boundary and the system was oriented along‐slope. It experienced lateral shifts and it was fed by a network of tributaries. The glacial dynamics shift from the Maskwa to the Buffalo system occurred at about 13.5 14C kyr BP. The Buffalo system later evolved into thin outlet lobes until final deglaciation of the area. The proposed model has implications for ice‐sheet reconstruction and the assessment of till properties in the prairies and in similar terrains.

A modelling reconstruction of the last glacial maximum ice sheet and its deglaciation in the vicinity of the northern patagonian icefield, south america

ABSTRACT. A time‐dependent model is used to investigate the interaction between climate, extent and fluctuations of Patagonian ice sheet between 45° and 48°S during the last glacial maximum (LGM) and its subsequent deglaciation. The model is applied at 2 km resolution and enables ice thickness, lithospheric response and ice deformation and sliding to interact freely and is perturbed from present day by relative changes in sea level and equilibrium line altitude (ELA). Experiments implemented to identify an LGM configuration compatible with the available empirical record, indicate that a stepped ELA lowering of 750 to 950 m is required over 15000 years to bracket the Fenix I‐V suite of moraines at Lago Buenos Aires. However, 900 m of ELA lowering yields an ice sheet which best matches the Fenix V moraine (c. 23000 a BP) and Caldenius’ reconstructed LGM limit for the entire modelled area. This optimum LGM experiment yields a highly dynamic, low aspect ice sheet, with a mean ice thickness of c. 1130 m drained by numerous large ice streams to the western, seaward margin and two large, fast‐flowing outlet lobes to the east. Forcing this scenario into deglaciation using a re‐scaled Vostok ice core record results in an ice sheet that slowly shrinks by 25% to c. 14500 a bp, after which it experiences a rapid collapse, loosing some 85% of its volume in c. 800 years. Its margins stabilize during the Antarctic Cold Reversal after which it shrinks to near present‐day limits by 11 000 a bp.

Glaci-tectonic deformation of proglacial lake sediments in the Cairngorm Mountains

Synopsis Polyphase deformation of glaciolacustrine sediments in the Cairngorm Mountains suggests ice-margin oscillations within a plateau ice-field outlet lobe following the Late Devensian Glacial Maximum, c. 18 ka 14 C BP . Lithostratigraphical analysis of exposures of glacial lake sediments in Gleann Einich reveals that an initial phase of proglacial thrusting was followed by a phase of subglacial deformation resulting from glacier-overriding from the south. Subsequent ice retreat led to the deposition of more extensive lake and delta sediments. This new model of active retreat supports recent theories of a Late Devensian deglaciation punctuated by ice-margin readvances.

Pleistocene glacial history of the southern Ahklun Mountains, southwestern Alaska: Soil-development, morphometric, and radiocarbon constraints

Four new AMS 14 C ages, glacial mapping, and measurements of soil development, loess thickness, and moraine morphology constrain the age and extent of at least three Quaternary advances by outlet lobes of an ice cap over the Ahklun Mountains of southwestern Alaska. The relative-age data are from 107 sites correlated to 25 ice-marginal positions in the Kanektok, Goodnews, Togiak, and Kulukak River valleys and along the southeastern flank of the range. Radiocarbon ages provide minimum ages for six — and a maximum age for one — of the former ice margins. Soil and morphometric parameters subdivide the ice limits into three relative-age groups. One to three pre-Wisconsin advances, probably middle Pleistocene in age, are represented by drift with relatively thick B horizons (60±5 cm, with Bt horizons), thick loess caps (80±12 cm), and broad moraines (135±134 m) with gentle side slopes (7±5°). An extensive early Wisconsin (sensu lato, s.l.) advance, >39.9 ka, and three associated stillstands or readvances are characterized by intermediate soil and morphometric parameters (Bw and weak Bt horizons with thicknesses of 40±11 cm; loess thicknesses of 69±46 cm; crest widths of 38±13 m; and slope angles of 14±4°). The maximum late Wisconsin advance, >16.9 ka, and two readvances or stillstands are associated with thin (20±5 cm), weakly to moderately developed Bw horizons, thin loess caps (28±8 cm), narrow crest widths (28±9 m), and steep slope angles (18±3°). The data confirm that early-Wisconsin glaciers in southeast Beringia were much more extensive than late Wisconsin glaciers, which were apparently limited by availability of moisture.

The origin of Heinrich layers: evidence from H2 for European precursor events

Recent well-dated isotopic (Sr–Nd) fingerprinting of Heinrich layer ice-rafted detritus (IRD) on the European margin indicates supply from European ice sheets as precursors to Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) supply [F.E. Grousset et al., Geology 28 (2000) 123–126, H. Snoeckx et al., Mar. Geol. 158 (1999) 197–208]. These precursor events lead LIS input by up to 1.5 ka [F.E. Grousset et al., Geology 28 (2000) 123–126] and have been interpreted to indicate LIS collapse during Heinrich events stimulated by events originating on the European side of the Atlantic [F.E. Grousset et al., Geology 28 (2000) 123–126]. Such phasing of IRD supply from different sources within Heinrich layers therefore has implications for the origin and mechanics of Heinrich events. We present evidence here that the IRD comprising Heinrich layer 2 (H2; ∼20–21 14C ka BP) on the European continental margin contains detrital Campanian Upper Chalk deriving from bedrock sources eroded on the Celtic shelf by the British Ice Sheet (BIS) in addition to lithic material sourced from the LIS. High-resolution radiocarbon chronology indicates chalk grain deposition as discrete pulses both before and coincident with supply of LIS-sourced detritus. The specificity of the chalk fingerprint to the BIS enables a 700–1000 yr lag between the BIS and LIS events to be identified. This phasing indicates a more rapid response of the outlet lobes draining the smaller BIS than those draining the LIS and implicates external climatic forcing of Heinrich events. It is unlikely that this precursor event represents IRD event 18, the recently identified 1–2 ka IRD cycle event which immediately precedes H2, because the lag between precursor and main event is here less than 1.5 ka and because such pervasive periodicity is not apparent in European continental margin IRD records. The later synchroneity between the BIS and LIS input in H2 identifies glacio–eustatic sea-level rise associated with LIS discharges as a possible feedback mechanism causing destabilisation of ice streams elsewhere during Heinrich events.

Laurentide glacial landscapes: The role of ice streams

Glacial landforms of the North American prairie can be divided into two suites that result from different styles of ice flow: (1) a lowland suite of level-to-streamlined till consistent with formation beneath ice streams, and (2) an upland and lobe-margin suite of thick, hummocky till and glacial thrust blocks consistent with formation at ice-stream and ice-lobe margins. Southern Laurentide ice lobes hypothetically functioned as outlets of ice streams. Broad branching lowlands bounded by escarpments mark the stable positions of the ice streams that fed the lobes. If the lobes and ice streams were similar to modern ice streams, their fast flow was facilitated by high subglacial water pressure. Favorable geology and topography in the midcontinent encouraged nonuniform ice flow and controlled the location of ice streams and outlet lobes.

Late Wisconsin Glacial History of the Northern Alaska Peninsula, Southwestern Alaska, U.S.A.

The late Wisconsin Brooks Lake glaciation of the Alaska Peninsula includes five previously recognized stades, indicating considerable climate variability during the last glaciation. During the early phase of the Brooks Lake glaciation, an outlet lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced westward across a low topographic divide into the Iliamna valley where it merged with ice from local mountain sources. During the earliest (Kvichak) stade, which commenced sometime after 26,150 ? 300 14C yr BP, ice filled the Iliamna valley and deposited the type Kvichak moraine. Following retreat into the Iliamna Lake basin, the outlet glacier readvanced to the Iliamna-stade moraine. Subsequently, and sometime prior to 12,600 14C yr BP, ice retreated from Iliamna valley. This two-fold sequence of moraines deposited during the early phase of the Brooks Lake glaciation is not present in the Naknek valley, 80 km south of Iliamna valley, where high mountains diverted the ice sheet while supporting a confluent system of local-mountain glaciers. These glaciers deposited the moraine enclosing Naknek Lake, which marks the outer limit of late Wisconsin ice in the valley. Apparently, differing ice sources and glacier configurations caused the two glacial systems to respond differently to climate change or glacier-bed dynamics, or to be influenced by different climate changes. During the late phase of the Brooks Lake glaciation, valley glaciers derived from local-mountain sources terminated well behind the mountain fronts and deposited the Newhalen, Iliuk, and Ukak moraines. Equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) over the Naknek valley was lowered 250-650 m below the present during the Iliuk stade. Full-glacial ELA was probably just a few tens of meters lower, but generated extensive advance over broad, relatively flat troughs. Slope angles measured on the Kvichak and Iliamna moraines, and the correlative Naknek moraine are less steep (- 11-15') than those of younger moraines (- 18-20'), suggesting that a substantial length of time separated the Iliamna and Newhalen stades. This interstadial may correlate with an interval of restricted ice extent separating early and late phases of the late Wisconsin recognized elsewhere in Alaska around 14,000 yr BP

The Last Glaciation in Central Magellan Strait, Southernmost Chile

Glacial landforms and drift stratigraphy in central Magellan Strait, southernmost Chile, document repeated fluctuations during the last glacial cycle of outlet lobes from an ice cap centered over the southern Andes. The lobes developed comparatively low-gradient profiles because of low basal shear stresses over soft deformable beds and this made them sensitive to even small-scale changes in the mass balance. Such low profiles and rapid calving in deep proglacial lakes during deglaciation may have made the Magellan ice lobe particularly responsive to climatic fluctuations during the last glacial cycle, and to advance and retreat over considerable distances. Study of the glacial landforms and drift stratigraphy has led to the identification of at least five glacier advances to limits at and south of the Segunda Angostura. Fragments of mollusc shells contained in basal till indicate marine incursions between some advances, thus documenting extensive deglaciation. A partial chronology based on amino acid studies and radiocarbon dating suggests that five of these advances occurred during the last glacial cycle. The most extensive advances may have culminated during substages of marine isotope stage 5 (substage 5b or 5d) and/or during stage 4. Slightly less extensive advances occurred between ca. 28,000 and 14,000 yr B.P.

Concertina eskers, Brúarjökull, Iceland: An indicator of surge-type glacier behaviour

Brúarjökull is a surging outlet lobe of Vatnajökull in SE Iceland. Geological evidence indicates that during quiescent phases, water drainage takes place in ice-walled and ice-roofed channels. As the glacier retreats, the courses of these channels are represented by eskers. Eskers which were englacial prior to surges become deformed during a surge. The deformation of eskers reflects strong longitudinal compression of the ice in the terminal zone. The wavelength of one of the compressed eskers indicates that ice in a 4 km wide margin was compressed by 50% of its original length. Compressed, or concertina eskers, date from the 1963–1964 and the 1890 surges of Brúarjökull. They have not been found from the 1810 surge, indicating that they may not survive if overrun by subsequent surges.

Quaternary geology of western and central North Greenland

The earliest Quaternary event represented is the Kap Bryant glacial stade of probable Saalian age, in which an ice sheet covered the area out to the shelf. In contrast, in the Late Weichselian Kap Fulford stade, the area was only partly glaciated, with outlet lobes from an ice sheet occupying the outer fjords. There is some evidence of an earlier (Early Weichselian?) slightly more extensive glaciation (Kap Sumner stade). In the early Holocene, the ice margin had retreated to the middle regions of the fjords and extensive glacial lakes were formed in intervening areas. The Late Holocene Steensby stade produced a readvanee of the ice sheet at the head of the fjords and the growth of local ice caps. Reworked marine fossils in glacial sediments define the Hall Land marine event of Eemian and/or Early Weichselian age. The Late Weichselian/Holocene marine event (Nyeboe Land event) is abundantly represented by deposits whose distribution shows that the limit of transgression varied over the area, with a maximum at about 125 m above sea level. Regression from this limit occurred during the Holocene, initially at a slow rate. The fossil biota are described from the marine sediments and from a small number of terrestrial occurrences.

Evidence of a Periodic Ice-Cliff Avalanche on North-West Ellesmere Island, N.W.T., Canadian High Arctic

AbstractEvidence of a recent (1985) ice-cliff avalanche from an outlet lobe of a small plateau ice cap on north-west Ellesmere Island is discussed. Former avalanche events are evidenced by debris lying outside the 1985 avalanche material. Periodic activity seems to be linked to the build-up of melt water in the crevasses of the outlet lobe during the melt season. The exact magnitude and frequency of events are unknown. Some implications to geomorphology and the sedimentology of sub-polar glaciers are discussed.

Evidence of a Periodic Ice-Cliff Avalanche on North-West Ellesmere Island, N.W.T., Canadian High Arctic

AbstractEvidence of a recent (1985) ice-cliff avalanche from an outlet lobe of a small plateau ice cap on north-west Ellesmere Island is discussed. Former avalanche events are evidenced by debris lying outside the 1985 avalanche material. Periodic activity seems to be linked to the build-up of melt water in the crevasses of the outlet lobe during the melt season. The exact magnitude and frequency of events are unknown. Some implications to geomorphology and the sedimentology of sub-polar glaciers are discussed.