Outdoor Sows Research Articles

Effect of reduced dietary protein on productivity and plasma, urine, and milk metabolites in organic sows during winter conditions

Oversupply of protein is a challenge in organic sow production. Currently, organic sow feed is composed in accordance with feeding standards of conventional sows, which do not take the higher daily feed allowance and nutritional contribution from roughage into consideration. The objective of the current study was to investigate the effect of reduced dietary protein in gestational compound feed for organic outdoor sows during winter conditions, using metabolites in plasma, urine, and milk as indicators of sows’ metabolic status.In total, 20 sows (Topigs Norsvin; TN70) were included in the experiment, lasting from d30 of gestation until weaning at d49 of lactation under outdoor conditions during winter. During gestation, sows were fed one of two isoenergetic diets containing 88 g SID CP pr. kg DM (Control) and 72 g SID CP pr. kg DM (Low protein), corresponding to 16% and 31% below the current recommendation for indoor sows. In lactation, all sows were fed a standard diet containing 125 g SID CP pr. kg DM.Sow performance traits were not affected by dietary protein level during gestation. An interaction indicated that sows fed the control diet had 23% and 11% higher urinary urea concentrations at d60 and d100 of gestation, respectively, compared with the low protein diet. During lactation, the milk yield of sows fed low protein in gestation increased more than that of control sows (P < 0.05). Concurrently, the litter gain of the low protein sows was improved, and their litters were heavier at d49 compared to control sows (276 kg vs. 238 kg; P < 0.001).In conclusion, organic outdoor sows benefitted from reduced dietary protein during gestation in winter conditions, as indicated by urinary urea concentration, milk yield, and litter gain.

Grass clover intake and effects of reduced dietary protein for organic sows during summer

Energy spent on thermoregulation and locomotive activity may increase the energy requirements of outdoor relative to indoor housed sows, whilst their protein requirement most likely is comparable on a daily basis but lower per kg of feed. The purpose of this study was to quantify the energy and protein intake from compound feed and grazing and the energy and protein needed for maintenance, maternal retention, milk production, thermoregulation and locomotive activity in organic sows during summer, to understand how nutrition of organic sows could be improved. A total of 41 2nd parity sows (Landrace x Yorkshire; 239 kg at insemination) were reared outdoor under organic conditions for six months. Sows were fed one of two iso-energetic diets, either commercial available gestation and lactation diets (control strategy), or a 12% lower protein supply obtained by diluting the control diets with a low protein supplement. Sows had ad libitum access to a plentiful grass clover sward and were supplied similar amounts of metabolizable energy (ME) from compound feed equivalent to 10% above the energy recommended for indoor sows. Collections of plasma and urine were performed on d 60 and d 100 of gestation and plasma, urine and milk was collected on d 5, 20 and 40 of lactation. On all sample collection days, sows (and piglets; n=671) were weighed individually, sows were back fat scanned and heart rate and locomotive activity was registered with a global positioning system (GPS) tracker. Sow body composition was estimated using a deuterium dilution technique, which allowed retention or mobilisation of protein and fat to be calculated. Grass intake was estimated via plasma pipecolic acid. Daily grass clover intake was on average 420 g DM/d during gestation, 574 g DM/d at peak lactation and 472 g DM/d on d 40 of lactation, corresponding to 2.4, 3.2 and 2.6 kg of fresh grass. There was an increased grass clover intake in the low protein group, as they consumed 14% more grass (37 g DM/d extra) than the sows fed the normal protein compound feed (P=0.007). Estimated milk yield peaked at 16.3 kg/d on d20. This experiment showed no effects of dietary protein level on urinary pH, urea or creatinine and no effects on plasma glucose, urea, lactate, triglycerides, creatinine or NEFA concentrations. It was possible to reduce the protein content of organic compound feed in the summer time as grazing pregnant sows obtained 16-17% of their daily SID lysine requirement from the sward in mid and late gestation. In conclusion, the daily protein- and amino acid requirements were met by feed and grass consumption during pregnancy but not in early and at peak lactation due to insufficient feed intake. The total energy requirement of high yielding second parity outdoor sows during a normal Danish summer was found to be around 32 MJ ME/d during gestation and approximately 130 MJ ME/d at peak lactation.

Effect of reduced dietary protein level on energy metabolism, sow body composition and metabolites in plasma, milk and urine from gestating and lactating organic sows during temperate winter conditions

Energy spent on thermoregulation and the opportunity for increased locomotive activity increases the energy requirements of outdoor relative to indoor housed sows, whilst their protein requirement most likely is comparable on a daily basis. The purpose of this study was to quantify the energy needed for maintenance, maternal retention, milk production, thermoregulation and increased locomotive activity in organic sows.A total of 47 gilts (Landrace x Yorkshire; 190 kg at insemination) were reared outdoor under organic conditions for five months during winter. To study dietary effects of protein, gilts were fed one of two iso-energetic compound feeds, where dietary protein differed by 12%. Gilts had ad libitum access to grass clover silage and were fed similar amounts of metabolisable energy (ME) from compound feed equivalent to the energy recommendations for indoor sows + 15% in both groups.Collection of plasma and urine was performed on d60 and d100 of gestation and plasma, urine and milk was collected on d5, d20 and d40 of lactation. On all collection days, sows and piglets (n=635) were weighed individually, sows were back fat scanned and heartrate and locomotive activity was registered with a tracking system. Sow body composition was estimated using the deuterium dilution technique.Live weight and back fat thickness were not affected by the dietary protein level, neither was the number of total born, still born, piglet birth weight or piglet weight gain until weaning at seven weeks (14.5 kg).There was no effect of protein level on locomotive activity. Milk yield peaked with 12.9 kg/d around d20. In total, 58% of the gross energy intake was associated with milk production at d20 including heat. Milk energy output was 69 MJ ME/d at peak lactation at d20. Sows fed the low protein compound feed had a lower milk yield from d20 to d40 as compared with control fed sows (8.0 vs.10.3 kg/d; P<0.05).In conclusion, the daily feed intake was clearly insufficient in early lactation, and sows lost > 1 kg of body fat/d from d5-d20. The daily protein- and amino acid requirements were met during pregnancy, also when sows were fed the low protein compound feed, but the low protein diet supplied insufficient standardised ileal digestible lysine during lactation and this compromised the milk production. The total energy requirement of high yielding first parity outdoor sows during a mild winter was found to be ~ 68 MJ ME/d in gestation and ~153 MJ ME/d at peak lactation.

Effects of seed moisture content, stratification and sowing date on the germination of Corylus avellana seeds

For Corylus avellana, pericarp permeability, seed desiccation tolerance, and the effect of warm and cold moist stratification combinations on germination and of outdoor sowing date on dormancy breaking and seedling emergence were investigated. Seeds with (intact fruit nut) and without the pericarp were subjected to an imbibition test, and water uptake was measured. After nuts had been stored for 5 months at 3–5 °C, seeds and desiccated seeds were cold-stratified at 3–5 °C (for 0, 1, 2 or 3 months), then tested for germination. Nuts were warm-stratified at 20–25 °C (for 0, 1 or 2 months), then cold-stratified (for 0, 1, 2 or 3 months) and tested for seed germination. The nuts were sown outdoors on three dates in the same year of their collection: 15 September (immediately after collection), 2 November, and 17 December, and emerged seedlings were counted the following spring. The pericarp was not a barrier to water uptake by the seed; however, the seeds imbibed water faster and had more mass when the pericarp was removed. Seeds tolerated desiccation; germination percentage was not reduced when seed moisture content was reduced to 8.71%. Germination of seeds without the pericarp (regardless of the moisture content) was the highest when the seeds were cold-stratified for 2 months. When seeds with the pericarp were tested for germination, 2 months of warm stratification before a 2-month cold stratification maximized seed germination. For outdoor sowing of nuts, sowing date affected percentage of seedling emergence the following spring; early autumn sowing (immediately after collection) resulted in the best emergence.

Causes of preweaning mortality in organic outdoor sow herds

The aims of the current study were to identify the causes of preweaning piglet mortality and investigate the effect of season and parity on the proportions of mortality causes. The study was conducted in nine herds over a one-year period, and dead piglets were collected for necropsy once during each of the four seasons. In total, 2672 piglets were necropsied of which 60% were live-born but died post-partum (pp), 32% were stillborn and 8% were euthanised. Intra-partum deaths accounted for 88% of stillborn piglets. Eighty-one percent of necropsied live-born piglets died within four days pp. Half of these had a body weight of <1 kg at the time of death. Crushed and starved piglets accounted for 83% and 9% of mortalities until day four pp, respectively. Thirty-three percent of the crushed piglets (age zero to four days) had not suckled prior to death and the proportion of these piglets was lower in summer compared to the remaining part of the year (OR = 0.6, 95% CI [0.5;0.9]) and was higher for multiparous sows compared to first parity sows (OR = 1.7, 95% CI [1.1;2.6]).In conclusion, sow parity and season affected the proportion of crushed piglets before four days of age. Furthermore, the group of crushed piglets was heterogeneous and consisted of both heavy well-fed piglets and small piglets with empty stomachs. Thus, management implementations to lower mortality may differ depending on sow parity, season and individual piglet characteristics.

Research trends in outdoor pig production - A review.

Since the industrialization of swine production in the late 1900s, swine farms in the United States, as well as in Europe, have largely become consolidated. Pig farms became larger in size but fewer in number, with 91% of market pigs being produced by large operations with 5,000 or more pigs on-site in the US, and only 3% of the total utilized agricultural land representing organic farming. Such change in the market made it difficult for small farmers to stay competitive, forcing them to find alternative ways to reduce the cost of production and increase profit using the outdoor production system. In contrast to the indoor confinement system, outdoor production system uses pasture-based units and/or deep-bedded hoop structures that promote animal welfare and environmental sustainability with a lower capital investment. In accord with the growing concern for animal and environmental welfare and food safety by the consumers, small farmers practicing an outdoor production system are seeing increased opportunities for marketing their products in the pork niche market. Unlike the general belief that the reproductive and growth performance measures of the outdoor sows and piglets are poorer in comparison with the animals reared indoors, studies showed that there was no significant difference in the performance measures, and some traits were even better in outdoor animals. Improved reproductive and production traits can increase the sustainability of outdoor farming. Present study reviewed the recent studies comparing the performance measures, meat quality and health of indoor and outdoor animals, as well as the efforts to improve the outdoor production system through changes in management such as hut types and breed of animals.

Investigation of the Options to Extend the Period of Market Supply with Fruits of Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.)

Abstract The main goal of the present study was to establish the opportunity for prolonged obtaining and supplying with cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.) through application of various technological means. Experiments were carried out with two varieties of cape gooseberry – Plovdiv and Obrazec 1. The plants were grown by three different technologies – by pricking out seedlings, not pricking out seedlings and direct outdoor sowing, with three different sowing periods with interval of each being 15 days. The whole period of obtaining the production from each variant was investigated. In additional experiments, there were established the possibilities for storage of the fruit and also the period of supplying the market as well as additional post harvest ripening. The obtaining of the production from direct harvests starts from plants grown with pricking seedlings in the second decade of August to mid – October, those with no pricking seedlings from the first ten days of September to late October and with direct seeding from the beginning to the end of October. Plovdiv variety is characterized by rather high ripe. By storage, depending on the type of farming, the production comes from mid – September to early January, and in some periods coincides with fruits from additional ripening.

Drinking behaviour in sows kept outdoors during the winter months

In the light of the EU regulation, “pigs must have permanent access to a sufficient quantity of fresh water” and the practical problems it provides farmers during winter to keep water free of ice, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of periods with frost on the diurnal pattern of water intake in sows kept outdoors with free access to water. The study was performed on an organic pig herd with outdoor sows. Twenty-four Danish Landrace×Yorkshire sows of different parity (mean: 4.5±2.8) housed in individual farrowing paddocks with free access to water provided by a frost-proof drinking bowl were used. The individual sow's water intake from the drinking bowl was measured continuously from six days before farrowing until weaning at seven weeks after farrowing. Temperature of supplied water to each drinking bowl, air temperature and rainfall was measured continuously. Numbers of born alive, stillborn and weaned piglets were recorded. The recording period was divided into two temperature categories; control days (CD) with daily average air temperature at or above 0°C and frosty days (FD) with daily average air temperature below 0°C. The FD included data from 22 days representing 11 sows, while the remaining observations were defined as CD. Average water uptake from six days before farrowing until four weeks after farrowing was higher on FD than CD (28.9±0.8 vs. 23.1±1.8l/day, P<0.001). Across periods, a clear circadian rhythm was found with 70–75% of the water intake taking place between 8.00 and 20.00h. The extra water uptake on FD compared to CD was recorded between 8.00 and 16.00h (P<0.05). Water intake did not differ at night in the period from 20.00 to 8.00h (6.42l vs. 6.44l, respectively for FD and CD). There was no difference between FD and CD in number of visits to the drinking bowl during night (2.1±0.56 and 1.9±0.24 visits/night for FD and CD, respectively). We found higher water intake during frosty days and no difference in water consumption at night between days of frosty and normal weather, which indicates that pigs are motivated to drink even when the weather is cold. However, many farms may not have frost-proof water dispensers, and ice formation could prevent pigs from drinking at night. Thus further work is needed to investigate if sows, during the day, are able to compensate for a lack of uptake of water at night in case of a frozen water resource.

The Concept of Animal Welfare at the Interface between Producers and Scientists: The Example of Organic Pig Farming

In organic farming animal welfare is one important aspect included in the internationally agreed organic principles of health, ecology, fairness and care (IFOAM 2006), reflecting expectation of consumers and farmers. The definition of organic animal welfare includes-besides traditional terms of animal welfare-'regeneration' and 'naturalness'. Organic animal welfare assessment needs to reflect this and use complex parameters, include natural behaviour and a systemic view. Furthermore, various parties with seemingly conflicting interests are involved, causing ethical dilemmas, such as the use of nose rings for outdoor sows (impaired animal welfare vs. destruction of humus). Solutions can only be found when foundational concepts are translated and applied to practical situations. On-farm animal welfare assessment and implementation of improvement strategies are increasingly relevant scientific areas. They combine on-farm welfare assessment, identification of key problem areas and connected risk factors. Constant communication between all parties is crucial for success. Animal health and welfare planning is one application of this approach, which was carried out on Austrian organic pig farms as well as organic dairy farms in seven European countries. The projects included welfare assessment, feedback and benchmarking as a tool for communication between farmers, advisors and scientists. Finally goals were set by the farmer and improvement strategies applicable to organic farming were implemented. This included prevention of disease by management strategies instead of routine treatment with pharmaceutical products. It appeared that next to problem structuring, multidisciplinary problem solving demands good communications skills to relate animal welfare science to value reflections.

Maternal behaviour and performance in first-parity outdoor sows

When sows and their litters are kept outdoors, much of the responsibility for the litter is shifted from the herdsman to the sow compared to when the sows are kept indoors. Therefore, the maternal ability, including maternal behaviour, is believed to be important in outdoor piglet production. The aim of this study was to describe maternal traits in conventionally bred first-parity sows kept outdoors. Nursing behaviour, sow activity, sow body reserves, litter size and piglet growth were studied in 40 first-parity sows during a seven week long lactation. The sows were kept in groups outdoors. Sow activity (lying down or active) and nursing behaviour (nursing frequency, nursing duration and nursing terminator) were recorded on videotapes at four days post partum (pp) and directly observed at four and six weeks pp. Cross suckling was observed at four and six weeks pp. Sows were weighed and measured for backfat depth five days before farrowing, two weeks pp and at weaning seven weeks pp. Piglets were weighed at four days pp, at two weeks pp and at weaning. We concluded that sow nursing behaviour and activity are individual characteristics repeatable within sows' late lactation. Less active sows are more available for suckling. Light and thin sows have an earlier and more progressed weaning process than heavier, fatter sows. A significant positive relation was found between sow appetite in early lactation and piglet growth until weaning. Sow nursing behaviour is not important for piglet growth when sows and piglets are held in groups, piglets have access to sow feed and piglets are weaned as late as at seven weeks of age.

Using the Piglet Scream Test to enhance piglet survival on farms: data from outdoor sows

AbstractThe point of the Piglet Scream Test is to identify those sows that increase the survival of their piglets through good maternal behaviour. For this to work, sows must be shown to differ in their test responsiveness, for differences to be consistent across parities and for responsiveness to be associated with piglet survival. Our data provide some first evidence that outdoor sows, kept under commercial production conditions, differ consistently from each other in their test responsiveness across parities. However, there was no evidence that this was associated with the survival of their litters. This, together with the lack of consistent evidence from other studies for a relationship between Piglet Scream Test responsiveness and piglet survival and concerns about its possible causes, cautions against the use of the test to enhance piglet survival on farms without further study. The paper highlights lack of standardisation of the test and pseudoreplication as concerns.

Reproductive parameters of “Nero di Parma” sows reared outdoor and indoor

The swine genetic type “Nero di Parma” has been obtained after a preservation programme of a local breed suitable for outdoor rearing systems in Parma province. Actually, 480 females and 35 males are registered by Italian Swine Breeders Association and are reared in 28 herds of Parma province. The study involved the analysis of the reproductive performance of 120 sows from 19 boars, born between 1999 and 2005, during 211 parities from 2002 to 2006. For each parity, the boar, the age of the sow, the length of the farrowing interval, and the litter size (number of born alive, stillborn and weaned piglets) were recorded. Two rearing systems of the farrowing sows (from the final phase of gestation to the end of lactation) were considered: indoor (sows closed off in individual stalls or farrowing cages) and outdoor (sows in individual huts inside the paddocks, with straw bedding); dry sows in both systems had access on pasture with forage and concentrate integration. Data concerning sows performance were analyzed by a GLM procedure with a mixed model containing, as fixed factors, the type of rearing system of farrowing sows (2 levels: indoor, outdoor), the parity (4 levels: 1, 2, 3, >3), the farrowing season (4 levels), 1st degree interactions and, as a random factor, the father (n=19). Data concerning litter size were analyzed with a mixed model containing, as fixed factors the type of rearing system of farrowing sows, the parity, the farrowing season and year (5 levels), the herd (n=20) nested within type of rearing system, 1st degree interactions and, as a random factor, the boar (n=30). In both models, the inbreeding coefficient of sows, calculated from pedigree analysis, was used as a covariate. Type of farrowing sows rearing system significantly affected (P<0.05) the age at parities and the length of farrowing intervals. Farrowing sows reared indoor showed lower age at parities (737 vs 834 d) and farrowing intervals (236 vs 269 d) than outdoor sows. Parity number and inbreeding coefficient significantly affected (P<0.001) age at parities but not farrowing intervals. Additive genetic effect was significant (P<0.001) for both traits. With reference to litter size, no significant effects (P>0.05) were shown by type of rearing system on number of born alive piglets (8.51 vs 7.21 for indoor and outdoor sows, respectively), as year (P<0.05), season*year interaction (P<0.05) and boar (P<0.001) significantly affected the number of stillborn; type of rearing system showed a highly significant effect (P<0.001) on the number of weaned piglets (6.57 vs 3.95 for indoor and outdoor sows, respectively). In conclusion, the sows from the genetic type “Nero di Parma” show actually a low reproductive performance, however in line with those reported for other autochthonous breeds. In addition, the traits are affected by a rearing system, in which the control by the breeder is moderate. Because genetic improvement of reproductive traits is rather difficult, it seems to be necessary an improvement of farm management.

Effect of nose ringing and stocking rate of pregnant and lactating outdoor sows on exploratory behaviour, grass cover and nutrient loss potential

Nose ringing of outdoor sows is practiced to reduce grass sward damage for environmental reasons but conflicts with natural behaviour considerations. We investigated effects of ringing pregnant and lactating outdoor sows on foraging and explorative behaviour, grass cover and nutrient deposition. The experiment included both ringed and unringed sows. For unringed sows the paddocks were either used continuously throughout the experiment or divided into two and sows were moved half way through the experimental period leaving the first used paddock for regrowth. Ringing did not prevent the sow’s rooting, but rooting was less pronounced, when sows were ringed. On average, ringing increased grass cover from 14% to 38% and from 64% to 81% in paddocks with pregnant and lactating sows, respectively. In paddocks with unringed sows kept at a double density and followed by a resting period, the grass cover in autumn was restored to a high degree in paddocks with pregnant sows. In lactating sow paddocks the level of inorganic N was high but with no significant relation to extent of grass cover. In pregnant sow paddocks the soil inorganic N content was significantly reduced by increased grass cover and at 60% grass cover soil inorganic N content was at a low level. From the experiment it was evident that although ringing did have a positive environmental effect, it was not the main factor influencing potential losses. Management choices in terms of feeding, animal density and nutrient distribution are considered to be at least as important. D 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Concurrent swine erysipelas and Clostridium novyi infections associated with sow mortality in outdoor sows in Kenya

A sudden increase in sow mortality was reported from a large outdoor pig-breeding unit in Kenya. The sows showed pyrexia and diamond shaped to confluent skin lesions ante-mortem. Gross pathological examination of the carcases was performed and organ samples (heart, liver, kidney, spleen, mandible lymph nodes) were sent for further diagnostic investigation. Based upon the clinical, gross- and microscopic-pathological signs, bacteriological findings and toxin testing, concurrent infection with Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae and Clostridium novyi was diagnosed as the cause of the sow mortality.

Maternal responsiveness of outdoor sows from first to fourth parities

Sows of indoor breeds are well known to differ in the speed and strength with which they respond to a piglet trapped under their bodies. There is also evidence from two previous studies that a sow's responsiveness to playback of a simulated trapped piglet scream is related to the number of crushed piglets in her litter. This raises the possibility of using responsiveness in the Piglet Scream Test as a measure of mothering ability in commercial pigs. In outdoor sows, piglet losses due to crushing are thought to be even higher than in indoor sows, yet comparatively little is known about the maternal responsiveness in these animals, or about its relationship to piglet mortality. The present study therefore investigated the behaviour of outdoor sows in the Piglet Scream Test and a piglet handling test. Its main aims were to investigate changes and individual consistency in test responses over several parities, and the relationship between a sow's behaviour in these tests and the survival of her piglets under commercial outdoor production conditions. Data were collected for first to fourth parities on 41 Landrace/Duroc × Large White sows kept in individual farrowing paddocks. Data from second and third parities had to be combined because of data losses incurred by severe floods in 2000 and the UK Foot and Mouth Epidemic of 2001. Tests of maternal responsiveness comprised a Piglet Scream Test on Day 5 or 6 post-partum and a test of the sows’ responses to handling of their piglets on Days 1, 9 or 10, and 24 or 25 (Piglet Defence Test). Comparisons within parities revealed that sows responded more strongly and faster to playback of a piglet scream than of a control sound (bird call). Large individual differences were evident in responses in both tests, and there was some evidence for consistency in individual differences across parities. The responses to playback of the piglet scream and control sound were strongly correlated and declined from first to fourth parities, as did the sows’ defensiveness scores. Responses in the two tests were correlated in the sows’ first, but not subsequent parities. There was no evidence for an association between the test responses of the sows and total or live-born mortality levels in their litters which gives some first indication of a potentially limited usefulness of responses in the Piglet Scream Test as measures of mothering ability, at least in outdoor sows on commercial units.

Nitrogen and phosphorus surpluses on Danish dairy and pig farms in relation to farm characteristics

N and P surpluses per hectare at farm level were determined on 63 private pilot farms with data from 2 to 7 years between 1997 and 2003 (a total of 245 observations). Farms were classified in the following four farm types: Conventional mixed dairy, organic mixed dairy, conventional pig farms (indoor) and conventional pig farms with outdoor sows. Import of nutrients with concentrate and fertilizer was the major input to all conventional farm types. On the organic dairy farms major input was N fixation, but also import of nutrients with concentrate and manure were important inputs. Output from the dairy farms was dominated by nutrients in milk. On pig farms nutrients in meat dominated the output, but also export of nutrients with cash crops and manure were important outputs. Farm type, year and farm within farm type significantly affected both N and P surpluses per hectare. Farm type was the major source of variation in both N and P surpluses. In the period investigated N surplus decreased by 6.5 kg N ha − 1 yr − 1 and P surplus decreased by 0.7 kg P ha − 1 yr − 1 . The N and P surpluses observed on the conventional dairy farms significantly exceeded surpluses observed on the organic dairy farms. At equal number of livestock units (LU) per hectare (1.28 LU ha − 1 ) the difference was 43 kg N ha − 1 and 6 kg P ha − 1 . At equal rates of N or P in manure to fields (147 kg N ha − 1 , 29 kg P ha − 1 , respectively) the difference was 45 kg N ha − 1 and 4 kg P ha − 1 . Conventional dairy farms and pig farms with sows indoors had equal N and P surpluses at equal rates of N or P in manure to fields. Corrected to the average year (1999.5) the estimated average N and P surpluses showed highest levels on pig farms with outdoor sows (251 kg N ha − 1 , 42 kg P ha − 1 ) and lowest levels on organic dairy farms (113 kg N ha − 1 , 7 kg P ha − 1 ). Surpluses on the conventional dairy farms were 175 kg N ha − 1 and 16 kg P ha − 1 and on the indoor pig farms they were 123 kg N ha − 1 and 13 kg P ha − 1 . The N and P surpluses observed on Danish conventional mixed dairy farms were comparable with intensive dairy farming systems in other European countries.

Behaviour of pre-parturient sows housed in intensive outdoor or indoor systems

This work compared the behaviour of pre-parturient sows housed in intensive confined and outdoor systems, during the morning and afternoon prior to delivery. Eight sows were kept individually in farrowing crates or in paddocks with access to fresh pasture from 8 to 10 days before expected parturition. All outdoor sows built a nest within 24 hours before farrowing. On the morning and afternoon before farrowing they spent 6.5% of the time collecting grass and 7.5% of the time organizing the nest. Outdoor sows were observed more often than confined sows rooting (4.60% vs. 0.25%), feeding (10.2% vs. 3.0%), standing (51% vs. 13%) and walking (8% vs. 0%). Indoor sows redirected the nesting behaviour to other behaviours like attempts to dig the ground, nosing, biting and rooting parts of the crate, feeder or drinker, during 4.7% of the time. They also spent more time than outdoor sows inactive (85% vs. 60%), lying (72% vs. 41%), drinking (2.1% vs. 0.5%) and vacuum chewing (3.7% vs. 0.1%). The pre-parturient behaviour of sows was considerably affected by the husbandry system. The outdoor system appears to be more appropriate for the sows' welfare than the conventional confinement.

Environmental Prevalence and Persistence ofSalmonellaspp. in Outdoor Swine Wallows

Swine can harbor Salmonella in their gastrointestinal tracts. It has been estimated that up to 48% of the U.S. swine herd may carry Salmonella. Housing sows in farrowing stalls has become controversial due to animal welfare-based criticisms. An alternative production system is to keep sows outdoors on pasture with access to individual farrowing huts. This study was designed to determine the effects of two production systems on indicator bacteria and Salmonella of sows housed indoors in farrowing stalls (n = 52) compared to sows housed outdoors (n = 52) in English style huts. Each farrowing radial contained one wallow, from which mud (n = 290) and water (n = 290) samples were collected weekly. All samples were analyzed for generic E. coli, coliforms and Salmonella. No differences (p > 0.05) were detected in Salmonella, generic E. coli and coliform populations between indoor farrowing stalls and outdoor farrowing huts. However, all 8 outdoor wallows contained Salmonella spp. at some point during the study (n = 49 Salmonella isolates). Salmonella genotypes persisted within some wallows for >5 months, and genetically indistinguishable Salmonella isolates were found in multiple wallows. Salmonella isolated from outdoor sow feces were genetically indistinguishable by PFGE from Salmonella isolated from wallows (n = 33) throughout the study, indicating that pathogenic bacteria were cycling between swine and their environment. In conclusion, the role of wallows in disseminating Salmonella within an outdoor swine herd appears to be significant.

Alternatives to nose-ringing in outdoor sows: the provision of root crops

The practice of nose-ringing outdoor pigs has been questioned on ethical grounds, although nose-rings are widely used commercially to reduce the pasture damage that is caused by indiscriminate rooting of the paddock. Nose-rings have been proven to reduce the occurrence of such behaviours, and this is suggested as being due to the discomfort that is felt each time the snout comes into contact with a hard surface. The aim of this experiment was to seek a successful alternative to this practice. Sixteen multiparous sows were housed in groups of four and randomly allocated to one of the four dietary treatments in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Treatment A acted as a control and had no rooting area in the paddock; treatments B–D were all provided with a rooting area consisting of a 15 m × 2 m strip of ploughed land (total paddock area 35 m × 33 m). Sows in treatment B received 5 kg of swedes/sow ( Brassica napus L. var. napobrassica) spread over the surface of the paddock in addition to their daily concentrate feed ration. Treatment C received 5 kg of swedes/sow buried in the rooting area, again in addition to their daily ration of concentrate feed. Sows on treatment D also received 5 kg swedes/sows buried in the rooting area, but in this treatment the concentrate ration was reduced by 0.5 kg/sow to provide a complete diet isoenergetic to that offered to the control sows. Sows that received swedes spent significantly less time rooting the paddock (excluding the sacrificial area) when compared to the control sows (A = 8.7%, B = 5.7%, C = 6.6%, D = 4.7%, P < 0.001). The paddock which housed sows receiving the isoenergetic diet (containing swedes) had numerically higher levels of vegetation cover at the end of the 8-week period (55% cover) although this was not significantly different from the other three treatments (A = 31%, B = 38%, C = 30%). Although the provision of swedes reduced paddock rooting behaviour it appears that this is not an exclusive determinant of paddock damage, and therefore, this strategy cannot be recommended as a sole commercial alternative to nose-ringing sows.

Alternatives to nose-ringing in outdoor sows: 2. The provision of edible or inedible overground enrichment

AbstractThe nose-ringing of outdoor pigs (Sus scrofa), although commonly practiced as a means to inhibit rooting behaviour and therefore reduce pasture damage and soil erosion, has been questioned on ethical grounds and alternatives are being sought. In this experiment, the effect of overground environmental enrichment was assessed as a possible alternative. 12 multiparous sows were housed in groups of four and randomly allocated to one of three treatments in a 3 × 3 Latin square design. Treatments were: 1) no environmental enrichment, 2) edible overground enrichment in the form of grass silage, and 3) inedible overground enrichment in the form of branches and tyres. Sows that received silage as overground enrichment spent significantly less time rooting the paddock (P&lt; 0.01) than did sows on the other two treatments. The absence of a significant difference between treatments in overall foraging time budgets suggests that the manipulation of edible substrates may substitute for rooting behaviour in outdoor sows.