Ouachita National Forest Research Articles

Survival and movements of brown‐headed nuthatches after translocation to the Missouri Ozarks

AbstractThe brown‐headed nuthatch (Sitta pusilla) was likely extirpated from Missouri in the early 1900s as a result of habitat loss through extensive logging. Conservation partners including the Missouri Department of Conservation, United States Forest Service, University of Missouri, and others, relocated 102 brown‐headed nuthatches from Ouachita National Forest in Arkansas to Mark Twain National Forest in Missouri in 2020 and 2021 to establish a local population. We tracked 50 individuals for 24 ± 11 (median ± SD) days after release using radio telemetry and monitored movements in relation to sex and whether a bird was captured alone or as part of a group. We examined 25‐day survival using a spatial Cormack Jolly Seber (sCJS) model to account for likely dispersal outside of our study area. All birds survived capture, transport, and release. The 25‐day survival estimate was 0.56 (95% CI = 0.36–0.78) in 2020 and 0.68 (95% CI = 0.46–0.89) in 2021. Mean total distance moved following release was 5,670 (SD = 3,407) m and mean daily movement was 243 (SD = 135) m which was less than the mean daily dispersal distance estimated from our sCJS model (420 m, SD = 221). Our short‐term monitoring suggests initial success of the translocation, but continued monitoring is needed to evaluate long‐term success. Our survival analysis approach, which included movement data, illustrates the importance of considering dispersal when estimating survival.

Stand-Age Derived Competition Indices Influence Individual Tree Mortality Model Prediction for Naturally Occurring Even-Aged Shortleaf Pine Stands

To understand the influence of competition indices and post-thinning effects in predicting individual tree mortality, we developed two models, one without the effect of thinning and another, with the effect of thinning for naturally occurring even-aged natural shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) stands in the Ozark and Ouachita National Forests in Oklahoma and Arkansas, USA. Over the period of 25 years, six re-measurements of an individual tree from each plot were collected between 1985 and 2014. The logistic function was used to model the probability of mortality for which the binary response variable was, ‘0’ for living and ‘1’ for dead trees, using iteratively weighted regression and mixed-effects model. Stand-age derived competition indices such as, the ratio of stand basal area to stand age (SBAG), ratio of individual diameter to stand age (DAG), and the quadratic mean diameter (QMD), were found significant in predicting the probability of mortality. These variables were also found to be effective in the thinning effect model. However, excluding the thinning variable resulted in better performance with the chi-square test based on mortality within mid-diameter classes. Thus, the mortality model suggests that over time, individual tree mortality is influenced more greatly by competition modified by stand age rather than by a post-thinning effect in even-aged naturally occurring shortleaf pine trees.

Machine Learning for Modeling Wildfire Susceptibility at the State Level: An Example from Arkansas, USA

Fire susceptibility modeling is crucial for sustaining and managing forests among many other valuable land resources. With 56% of its area covered by forests, Arkansas is known as the “natural state”. About 1000 wildfires occurred and burned more than 10,000 acres each year during 1981–2018. In this paper, we use remote-sensing-based machine learning methods to address the natural and anthropogenic factors influencing wildfires and model fire susceptibility in Arkansas. Among the 15 explored variables, potential evapotranspiration, soil moisture, Palmer drought severity index, and dry season precipitation were recognized as the most significant factors contributing to the fire density. The obtained R-squared values are significant, with 0.99 for training the model and 0.92 for the validation. The results show that the Ouachita National Forest and the Ozark Forest, in west-central and west Arkansas, respectively, have the highest susceptibility to wildfires. The southern part of Arkansas has low-to-moderate fire susceptibility, while the eastern part of the state has the lowest fire susceptibility. These new results for Arkansas demonstrate the potency of remote-sensing-based random forest in predicting fire susceptibility at the state level that can be adapted to study fires in other states and help with fire preparedness to reduce loss and save the precious environment.

Camera-Trapping Survey for Plains Spotted Skunk (Spilogale putorius interrupta) in Eastern Oklahoma

Once known as a regularly harvested fur bearer, Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) has experienced drastic population decline and is now considered a species of conservation concern throughout much of its range. In an effort to contribute to distribution and habitat presence data in Oklahoma, we surveyed 95 locations using camera traps during the months of October and April (2018–2019 and 2019–2020) attempting to detect the S. p. interrupta (Plains Spotted Skunk) subspecies. We began surveying the Ouachita National Forest in eastern Oklahoma and broadened our survey to include areas of recently confirmed sightings. We only detected Eastern Spotted Skunks in 5 of the 95 locations that were surveyed, during 12 of the 5287 trap nights, and 13 of the 2085 mammal detections. Although we had low trap success, we believe our results are useful in supporting the rarity of, or difficulty detecting, this species. Additionally, the information resulting from this study should be useful in establishing a basis for continued sampling in Oklahoma and providing information to improve sampling technique and design when researching this species.

Evaluation of Long-Term Shortleaf Pine Progeny Tests in the Ouachita and Ozark National Forests, USA

Between the late 1970s and the early 1990s, the USDA Forest Service installed 155 shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) progeny tests in national forests across the Southern Region of the United States. Using control-pollinated crosses from the Mount Ida Seed Orchard, 84 of these progeny tests were established in the Ouachita and Ozark-St. Francis National Forests in Arkansas and Oklahoma. Each of these 84 test locations had, on average, 33 full-sibling families representing three local geographic seed sources (East Ouachita, West Ouachita, and Ozark). Though largely abandoned years ago, the progeny tests that remain provided an opportunity to determine if significant genetic and genetic × environment variance exists for performance traits (d.b.h., tree height, and survival) decades after installation. In 2018 and 2019, we remeasured d.b.h. and height and determined survival in 15 fully stocked progeny tests. Family variances were significant (p < 0.01) for both d.b.h. and height but not for survival (p > 0.05). Seed sources differed significantly (p < 0.05) for d.b.h., with more pronounced latitudinal differences. Additionally, we determined that individual tree and full-sibling family mean heritabilities were moderate (0.15 and 0.72, respectively, for d.b.h and 0.09 and 0.41, for height), suggesting relatively high genetic to environmental variation and good potential for genetic improvement. We also found that shortleaf pine families were broadly adapted in this region since family-by-test variances were non-significant (p > 0.05).

Managed Wildfire, Drought, and Overstory Survival: A Case Study in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas

Fire managers are increasingly using natural ignitions to restore and maintain fire-adapted ecosystems. Managing natural ignitions after decades of suppression, however, holds inherent ecological, economic, and personal risks. During the severe drought of 2011, fire management staff on the Ouachita National Forest used a range of strategies to manage the lightning-ignited High Peak Wildfire because full suppression was infeasible and there were potential resource benefits (e.g., restoration of desired forest structure and composition). Because of concerns that the combined effect of drought and fire could adversely affect overstory tree health and timber value, we established plots in burned and unburned areas in dry and dry-mesic pine-oak forests and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations immediately after the fire, and remeasured them 2 and 5 y post-burn. Between inferred pre-burn condition and 2 y post-burn, overstory trees across community types were resistant to fire (94% survival) while midstory trees were less resistant (35% survival). Survival between 2 and 5 y post-burn was near 100% for both overstory and midstory. Both the density and diversity of the midstory were reduced by 2 y post-burn, which had the desired effect of moving forest structure and composition toward an open woodland condition. This study provides evidence that wildfire, even in a drought, can be used in restoration efforts and that overstory trees in dry and dry-mesic pine-oak forests and pine plantations of the Ouachita Mountains can survive with little effect on resource values, provided that weather and fuel conditions are conducive to low- and moderate-severity burning.

Fine sediment storage in an eroding forest trail system

ABSTRACT We measured fine sediment accumulations (FSA) adjacent to eroding off-highway vehicle trails in Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas. Measured trailside FSA was 643 m3. Extrapolated to the entire trail network, this amounts to 216 t ha−1 of trail surface, with a residence time of <1 yr. Natural topographic features are the main storage sites, accounting for 83% of the total, and constructed features for 16%. More than two thirds occur in channels indicates high sediment connectivity. For all types of FSAs, the single largest deposit accounted for about 30% or more of the total. These hotspots are found where topographically suitable storage sites occur downslope of an area of above-average rates of, or recent, trail erosion. Because in many cases trail erosion occurs without evident gullies or rills, these accumulation foci are effective ways to identify erosion hotspots. Relatively small amounts of fine sediment are stored in low-order stream channels. However, the low storage amounts (4,060 m3 estimated for all low-order streams) and lack of silt and clay indicate that fine sediments are highly mobile once reaching streams. Overall, results indicate predominantly short-term storage of fine sediments and high connectivity with and rapid movement through the fluvial system.

A List of Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Collected During the 2017 William H. Cross Expedition to the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas with New State Records

ABSTRACT The William H. Cross Expedition is an endowed collecting trip conducted annually by the Mississippi Entomological Museum. This year's expedition was held from 19 to 24 June 2017 at the Ouachita Mountains Biological Station (OMBS) in Polk County, Arkansas. We focused our collecting efforts on the mountainous Ouachita Mountains Biological Station, but we also collected at various sites within the Ouachita National Forest, at Queen Wilhelmina State Park, Big Fork Creek Natural Area, and Stone Road Glade Natural Area. During a five-day period, we collected 63 ant species, including five not previously reported for Arkansas: Brachyponera chinensis (Emery), Hypoponera inexorata (Wheeler), Strumigenys creightoni Smith, Syscia augustae Wheeler, and Temnothorax longispinosus (Roger).

Usable Space Versus Food Quantity in Bobwhite Habitat Management

We studied the response of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) foods (plants and invertebrates), usable space, and populations following thinning and burning on the 60,000-ha pine (Pinus spp.)-grassland restoration area in the Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas, to examine 2 hypotheses commonly used to manage bobwhite habitat: 1) usable space (suitable permanent cover) and 2) food quantity (an element of habitat quality). We estimated invertebrate food abundance using sweep nets and abundance of food-producing plants using herbaceous and woody stem counts. The disk of vulnerability was used to index usable space. We used whistling-male counts to index population response. Relative abundance, mass, and frequency of occurrence of invertebrate foods and richness, density, and frequency of occurrence of bobwhite food-producing plants increased following thinning and fire. Relative abundance of whistling males was greatest in thinned stands 3 growing seasons post-burn and in thinned but unburned stands. We found food supply was related to usable space following treatment. However, food abundance alone did not explain bobwhite population response, whereas, usable space was predictive for bobwhite response. By comparing treated stands with similar usable space but different food quantity, we observed no differences in bobwhite abundance. Neural models suggested bobwhite population response was less sensitive to changes in food supply relative to changes in usable space. We recommend that managers should seek first to provide usable space (suitable permanent cover in low basal area stands), recognizing that adequate food supply will likely be a side effect of management to this end.

Usable Space Versus Habitat Quality in Forest Management for Bobwhites

We determined whether habitat quality (patch richness and diversity, edge density) or the quantity of usable space (suitable permanent cover) best explained the presence or absence of calling male bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) on 50-ha, circular plots (n = 80) in the Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas, during 2000 and 2001. Information theoretic analysis of logistic regression models revealed that usable space was predictive of bobwhite occurrence, whereas habitat quality variables were not. A logistic regression model with data pooled over 2 years predicted the presence of calling males if usable space was >26 ha on the 50-ha plots. Creation of usable space on the study area involved removal of mid story and co-dominant shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) and hardwoods (wildlife stand improvement = WSI) followed by February or March (late dormant season) prescribed burns at 3-year intervals. Application of WSI and fire results in an understory mosaic of low woody sprouts, forbs, and grasses of varying heights depending on time since the last burn. Our results were consistent with the hypothesis that predicts bobwhite presence as a function of usable space in time versus the classical principle of edge and other habitat quality indicators.

Evaluation of FOFEM Fuel Loads and Consumption Estimates in Pine-Oak Forests and Woodlands of the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas, USA

Accurate fuel load and consumption predictions are important to estimate fire effects and air pollutant emissions. The FOFEM (First Order Fire Effects Model) is a commonly used model developed in the western United States to estimate fire effects such as fuel consumption, soil heating, air pollutant emissions, and tree mortality. However, the accuracy of the model in the eastern United States has not been well tested. As a result, managers are turning to locally collected data sets from eastern forests to improve the accuracy of FOFEM and other models. FOFEM lacks local fuel load and consumption data for the Ouachita Mountains, an area with nearly 50,000 ha prescribe burned annually. In this study, we compared fuel loads and consumption using field-collected data with data predicted by FOFEM. We determined fuel loads before and after 15 prescribed fires by sampling live fuels, down woody debris, litter, and duff in three cover types (oak forest, pine-oak forest, and pine woodland) on the Ouachita National Forest in Arkansas. Default estimates of litter and duff fuel load in FOFEM were up to 346 and 1,307% greater than field estimates, respectively. FOFEM estimates of 10-hour, 1-hour, and litter fuel consumption were up to 182, 150, and 46% greater, respectively, than field-measured consumption. These overestimations of fuel load and consumption could result in overpredictions of air pollutant emissions and reduce the area of habitat restored and maintained by prescribed burning as fire managers seek to comply with air quality standards.

Northern bobwhite autumn and winter food habits in restored pine-bluestem habitats

We determined autumn and winter food habits of hunter-harvested northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus; n = 388) over 11 years (1998–2009) in a matrix of restored shortleaf pine–bluestem (Pinus echinata–Andropogon–Schizachyrium), and unthinned and unburned stands on the Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas, USA. Restoration treatments involved thinning of midstory hardwoods and midstory and co-dominant shortleaf pine in a process called wildlife stand improvement (WSI). The WSI was followed by February or March prescribed burns at 3-year intervals. Species richness of individual bobwhite crops ranged from 0 to 16 and differed among years but not months. Shortleaf pine seed, post oak (Quercus stellata) acorns, and various legume seed (Lespedeza spp., Desmodium spp.) occurred most often of 94 food categories/items (≥110 species) found in quail crops. Shortleaf pine seed had among the highest gross energy (4.58 ± 0.2 kcal/g), fat (21.8 ± 0.6%), and crude protein (31.2 ± 0.5%) of food items analyzed. Green vegetation occurred in 43.3% of all crops, the greatest of any food category, and also was high in crude protein (28.7%), but the lowest in gross energy (3.43 kcal/g). Invertebrates occurred in 35.6% of crops, but were high-ranked items in autumn and winter diets, particularly Orthopterans (12.4%), which were greatest in crude protein (64.3%). Average dry mass of crop contents was 1.38 g ± 0.16 g. Dry mass of woody plant seeds comprised most of the diet, averaging 0.86 g ± 0.17 g/crop. Bobwhites used a wide variety of plant and invertebrate food items that require or are benefited by open canopy conditions and frequent disturbance such as prescribed fire. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Ouachita Mountains Foodways: Preliminary Results from 2013-2014 Excavations at 3MN298

New excavations in the Ouachita National Forest in west-central Arkansas, co-directed by Meeks Etchieson and Mary Beth Trubitt, are resulting in significant information about foodways of ancestral Caddo Indians living in the Ouachita Mountains region. This work has focused on the Dragover site (3MN298), located on a floodplain of the upper Ouachita River. Artifacts from this extensive archeological site indicate use from about 6000 B.C. to the A.D. 1900s, but it was its potential for well-preserved organic material – animal bone, mussel shell, and charred plant seeds – that drew our research attention. Initial site testing in the 1980s uncovered several pit features with pottery sherds, chipped stone, animal bone, and mussel shells. Later analysis of ceramics from those features indicated a Buckville phase Caddo occupation estimated to fall in the sixteenth century A.D. Planting pine trees caused some damage to the site; one motivation for this project was the need for a current site evaluation so the Ouachita National Forest could better manage this historical location.

Ice storms generate spatially heterogeneous damage patterns at the watershed scale in forested landscapes

The effects of large‐scale disturbances play a pivotal role in shaping ecosystem structure and function. Interactions between disturbances and a multitude of biophysical factors at different scales generate spatially heterogeneous patterns of damage on vegetated landscapes. However, research on large‐scale disturbances is often conducted at one spatial extent because of the challenges associated with quantifying patterns of damage in vegetation across multiple spatial extents. Consequently, the literature has identified many different and often conflicting biophysical controls of vegetation damage, which is likely a consequence of the historical and spatial contingency of particular geographic locations. We investigated the influence of biophysical factors and spatial extent of ice storm damage patterns across the entire Ouachita National Forest and in 65 individual watersheds. This allowed for an assessment of how spatial extent and contingency might influence statistical results and therefore any conclusions drawn from these analyses. Two pre‐ and post‐storm Landsat 7 ETM+ scenes (October 6, 1999 and September 25, 2001) were acquired to map ice storm damage based on the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) change. Field sites verified the relationship between NDVI and actual forest damage from the storms. We derived topographic variables from a digital elevation model (DEM) and biological variables from GAP‐generated data. The relationship between ice storm damage patterns and biophysical factors across the entire national forest landscape was weak. However, the relationship between damage severity, topography, and forest type increased significantly at the watershed scale, though the specific variable displaying the strongest influence varied by individual watershed. This research demonstrates that complex topography and biological factors interact with the meteorological characteristics of ice storms to generate spatially heterogeneous damage patterns in forests at the watershed scale. It is likely that the damage patterns corresponding to a particular watershed will be repeated during future disturbances.

Stream channel responses and soil loss at off-highway vehicle stream crossings in the Ouachita National Forest

This study investigates the geomorphic effects of ford-type stream crossings in an off-highway vehicle (OHV) trail complex in the Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas. At a total of 15 crossing sites, we used a disturbed vs. undisturbed study design to assess soil truncation and an upstream vs. downstream design to assess in-channel effects. The 15 sites ranged from OHV crossings active for over 20years to those on trails that have been closed to regular use for >5years. All of the sites designated for OHV use (14 sites) exhibit soil loss of ~30 to 45cm within the trail segments on either side of the crossings. In-channel responses attributable to the crossings were observed at 14 (93%) of the sites and include increased bank erosion, increased mud coatings on coarse channel clasts, increased in-channel fine-sediment accumulations, changes in the size distributions of coarse bed material, and occurrence of large channel-filling sediment plugs. However, while every site but one shows at least one channel impact, only one site exhibits all of them. Despite the relatively homogeneous geographic area sampled, only limited generalizations are evident. Sediment impacts seem to predominate over runoff impacts from the trails. Small channels (basin areas <0.4km2) show greater consistency in their response behavior than larger channels. Where OHV use is currently allowed, downstream increases in mud coatings and sediment deposition features are more common. What seems more certain is that individual effects are strongly contingent on local details of channel and valley geomorphology.

Predictive Modeling of a Caddo Structure in the Ouachita Mountains, Montgomery Counts, Arkansas

During the Arkansas Archaeological Survey/Society Training Program in June, 2014, an arc of postmolds from a Caddo structure was uncovered at site 3MN298. The site is located in Montgomery County, Arkansas, within the Ouachita National Forest, on a bend of the Ouachita River. After reviewing the literature on Caddo architecture, an attempt was made to predict the size and shape of the building as well as the location of any associated features. In September, 2013, a small field crew effectively ground-truthed the model. This article explores the process of creating and using a predictive model to guide archaeological excavations of Caddo period structure and presents the results of this endeavor.

Origins and genetic structure of black bears in the Interior Highlands of North America

Although black bears (Ursus americanus) were believed to be extirpated from the Interior Highlands of North America by the early 1900s, populations have recently recovered, aided in part by reintroductions in Arkansas. Today black bears can be found in the Ozark and Ouachita National Forests of northern and western Arkansas, the White River National Wildlife Refuge in eastern Arkansas, and the Ozark region of southern Missouri. Previous genetic studies have investigated the effects of translocating black bears from Minnesota and Manitoba, Canada, into the Ozark and Ouachita National Forests between 1958 and 1968, with differing results. We used nuclear microsatellite loci to infer the genetic structure of black bears across the Interior Highlands and to investigate the sources of bears found today in southern Missouri. Our results suggest that the Ozark population was strongly influenced by the reintroductions, whereas the Ouachita population was influenced to a lesser degree. Although the majority of bears in the Ozark region of Arkansas and Missouri represent a single genetic unit, bears in Webster County, Missouri, may represent a remnant of the historical population of the region. Our results confirm that the bear population in the White River National Wildlife Refuge is strongly differentiated genetically from other Arkansas populations and support previous reports that the Ouachita bear population may have resulted from an admixture of a remnant population and reintroduced bears.

Landscape Ecology of Eastern Spotted Skunks in Habitats Restored for Red‐Cockaded Woodpeckers

AbstractAlthough examples are rare, conflicts between species of conservation concern can result from habitat restoration that modifies habitat to benefit a single taxon. A forest restoration program designed to enhance habitat for endangered red‐cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) may be reducing available habitat for the eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius), a forest‐adapted sympatric species of conservation concern that occurs in the Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas, U.S.A. At small scales, eastern spotted skunks select early successional forest with structural diversity, whereas red‐cockaded woodpeckers prefer mature pine (Pinus spp.) habitat. We surveyed for eastern spotted skunks at 50 managed forest stands, modeled occupancy as a function of landscape‐level habitat factors to examine how features of restoration practices influenced occurrence, and compared known occupied forest stands to those where active red‐cockaded woodpecker nesting clusters were located. The most‐supported occupancy models contained forest stand age (negatively associated) and size (positively associated); suggesting eastern spotted skunks primarily occupy large patches of habitat with dense understory and overhead cover. Red‐cockaded woodpecker nesting clusters were located in smaller and older forest stands. These results suggest that increased overhead cover, which can reduce risk of avian predation, enhances occupancy by small forest carnivores such as eastern spotted skunks. Management activities that increase forest stand rotation length reduce the availability of young dense forest. The practice may enhance the value of habitat for red‐cockaded woodpeckers, but may reduce the occurrence of eastern spotted skunks. Implementing plans that consider critical habitat and extinction risks for multiple species may reduce such conservation conflict.

Growth projection and valuation of restoration of the shortleaf pine–bluestem grass ecosystem

The fire-dependent shortleaf pine–bluestem grass ecosystem that existed prior to European settlement is being restored on approximately 62,700ha in the Ouachita National Forest. The restoration effort's economic effects are not completely understood. This study will provide the Forest Service with a framework for better communicating the biological and economic impacts of future forest plans and amendments. It also seeks to provide information on how shortleaf pine responds to different management regimes and the implicit cost to maintain the endangered red cockaded woodpecker habitat, and the economic consequences of transitioning from the traditional management regime to a regime which restores the shortleaf pine–bluestem grass ecosystem. The paper suggests by adopting the new pine–bluestem management regime, timber harvests in the pine–bluestem area decline by 25% during the 100-year simulation period, which will incur an additional implicit cost of $72/ha/year to maintain the red cockaded woodpecker habitat. An implied value for each pair of woodpeckers amounts to either $10,550 per year (for the desired 400 total pairs) or $16,880 per year (for the 250 reproducing pairs). Timber sale marking costs decline, while prescribed burning costs increase. The success of the pine–bluestem restoration requires the maintenance of a burning regime that prevents competing vegetation from occupying the middle canopy layer. Maintaining the pine–bluestem ecosystem will be difficult if environmental regulations become more stringent.

Fidelity of Bats to Forest Sites Revealed From Mist-Netting Recaptures

Abstract Although site fidelity to permanent roost structures by bats is generally known, long-term fidelity to areas such as foraging or drinking sites is unknown. Furthermore, mist-net recaptures of bats over multiple years are rarely reported. Extensive mist-net surveys were conducted over the course of 8 y in the Ouachita National Forest of central Arkansas, United States to investigate long-term site fidelity and recapture rates of individually marked forest bats. Among eight species that were captured, five species were recaptured over spans ≥1 y, including eastern red bats Lasiurus borealis, Seminole bats L. seminolus, evening bats Nycticeius humeralis, tri-colored bats Lasiurus borealis, and northern long-eared bats Myotis septentrionalis. Some individuals were recaptured multiple times over multiple years, and the maximum span over which an individual was recaptured was 1 y for Seminole bats, 2 y for tri-colored bats, 3 y for evening bats, 4 y for eastern red bats, and 5 y for northern long-eared bats. These results indicate long-term site fidelity by multiple bat species to particular forest sites, primarily pools along small intermittent streams. Proximity to these sites should be considered when conducting management activities.