Osteological Evidence Research Articles

Ousley—Repatriation and the Smithsonian

The repatriation of Native American human remains has been a significant issue at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History for the past 40 years. Following the requirements of the National Museum of the American Indian Act of 1989, which mandated the use of the best available scientific and historical documentation to trace tribal origins, the Museum created the Repatriation Osteology Laboratory, which Stephen Ousley directed for the majority of his career at the Smithsonian. For nearly a decade, Ousley led exemplary osteological research in the service of repatriation, applying techniques of forensic anthropology, innovating craniometric and statistical analyses, and working collaboratively with the museum’s Native American partners. His high standards for the research and objective treatment of osteological evidence requiring critical thinking have served as a model for the Repatriation Office, students, and Native and non-Native researchers he worked with during his time at the Smithsonian and beyond.

Cranial collection of the pre-Modern Bashkirs as a source in studies of ancient diseases: Syphilis

The cranial collection, which represents the close to modern Bashkirs (18th – early 20th centu- ries), was used as an osteological evidence of the incidence of treponemal diseases (acquired syphilis) in this population. The collection was assembled by Rinat M.Yusupov, a prominent biological anthropologist and ethnographer, mainly in the 1970s and 1980s through the excavation of old Bashkir cemeteries; it is currently stored in the Department of Ethnology, Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Ufa Federal Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The analyzed sample consists of 753 crania (409 males and 344 females). The study protocol included the type, location and size of pathological changes. The coding criteria of Hackett (1976) were used for recording sequence of cranial lesions. Each case was assigned one of three diagnostic statuses: status 1 – probable treponemal infection, status 2 – possible or suspected treponemal infection, and status 3 – questionable cases, according to the threshold diagnostic criteria. Specific cranial lesions that suggested the highest diagnostic status were observed in 1.06 % of cases. Statuses 2 and 3 accounted for 1.99 % and 3.45 % cases respectively. The total frequency of all lesions in the group was 6.51 % (3.05 % excluding questionable cases). Cranial lesions of all statuses were slightly more common in the female sample, but sex differences were statistically insignificant. There were no significant differences in the distribution of cranial lesions between individuals older and younger 35 years of age. The northwestern Bashkirs showed a significantly higher frequency of cranial lesions compared to the eastern Bashkirs. According to a preliminary paleoepidemiological assessment, the frequency of tertiary syphilis with skeletal involvement in the original living population could be 0.02 % (two specific cases per 10,000 individuals). The results are discussed in the context of available paleopathological data on treponematoses as well as medical and statistical sources on the occurrence of acquired syphilis in the close to modern Bashkirs.

Systematic of a Massively Constructed Specimen of Iguanodon galvensis (Ornithopoda, Iguanodontidae) from the Early Barremian (Early Cretaceous) of Eastern Spain

Styracosternan ornithopods are plenty abundant in the Lower Cretaceous fossil record of Europe. In particular, Iguanodon, the second genus of dinosaurs described worldwide, has been found in UK, Belgium, France, Germany, and Spain, evidencing a wide geographical distribution. Currently, the genus Iguanodon comprises two species, the type species I. bernissartensis from the late Barremian–Aptian of Europe and I. galvensis from the early Barremian of Teruel, Spain. The latter species is well known mainly from perinate and juvenile specimens. Here, axial and appendicular fossils of an adult, large and massively constructed ornithopod from the lower Barremian (Lower Cretaceous) Camarillas Formation of Galve (province of Teruel, Spain) are described. Fossil dimensions and some osteological evidence reveal that the specimen was a large (roughly 10 m long) ornithopod. An autapomorphic feature in the ischium and other characters allow us to ascribe this specimen to I. galvensis. In addition, postcranial co-ossification and fusion of the neurocentral suture indicate that the specimen was skeletally mature. Part of the material studied here was unknown in adults of I. galvensis, providing a better knowledge of the axial and appendicular region of this species.

Endocranial anatomy and phylogenetic position of the crocodylian Eosuchus lerichei from the late Paleocene of northwestern Europe and potential adaptations for transoceanic dispersal in gavialoids.

Eosuchus lerichei is a gavialoid crocodylian from late Paleocene marine deposits of northwestern Europe, known from a skull and lower jaws, as well as postcrania. Its sister taxon relationship with the approximately contemporaneous species Eosuchus minor from the east coast of the USA has been explained through transoceanic dispersal, indicating a capability for salt excretion that is absent in extant gavialoids. However, there is currently no anatomical evidence to support marine adaptation in extinct gavialoids. Furthermore, the placement of Eosuchus within Gavialoidea is labile, with some analyses supporting affinities with the Late Cretaceous to early Paleogene "thoracosaurs." Here we present novel data on the internal and external anatomy of the skull of E. lerichei that enables a revised diagnosis, with 6 autapormorphies identified for the genus and 10 features that enable differentiation of the species from Eosuchus minor. Our phylogenetic analyses recover Eosuchus as an early diverging gavialid gavialoid that is not part of the "thoracosaur" group. In addition to thickened semi-circular canal walls of the endosseous labyrinth and paratympanic sinus reduction, we identify potential osteological correlates for salt glands in the internal surface of the prefrontal and lacrimal bones of E. lerichei. These salt glands potentially provide anatomical evidence for the capability of transoceanic dispersal within Eosuchus, and we also identify them in the Late Cretaceous "thoracosaur" Portugalosuchus. Given that the earliest diverging and stratigraphically oldest gavialoids either have evidence for a nasal salt gland and/or have been recovered from marine deposits, this suggests the capacity for salt excretion might be ancestral for Gavialoidea. Mapping osteological and geological evidence for marine adaptation onto a phylogeny indicates that there was probably more than one independent loss/reduction in the capacity for salt excretion in gavialoids.

Lower Cretaceous iguanodontian dinosaurs from the southwestern margin of Gondwana

The early evolutionary and biogeographical history of Gondwanan iguanodontian dinosaurs is poorly understood due to their scarce Lower Cretaceous fossil record. In South America, the Lower Cretaceous iguanodontian osteological record is very fragmentary and most published reports cannot be used to discard or confirm hadrosauroid affinities. The single exception is Tietasaura from Brazil, whose incomplete femur shows a combination of traits found only in non-hadrosauroid iguandontians. Furthermore, no skeletal remains whatsoever of Lower Cretaceous iguanodontians have been reported from the western margin of South America. Here, we describe an isolated ornithopod caudal centrum (SGO.PV.22900) from the Lower Cretaceous Quebrada Monardes Formation in the Atacama Desert, northern Chile. Although incomplete, SGO.PV.22900 presents iguanodontian traits, such as the sub-hexagonal contour of the articular faces, the rectangular profile in lateral view and the absence of transverse processes below the neurocentral suture. We were also able to use quantitative measurements to explore taxonomic affinities, by carrying out a Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) using measurements of caudal centra of several iguanodontian species. The results of both analyses are consistent with those of our comparisons and suggest that SGO.PV.22900 belongs to a non-hadrosauroid iguanodontian ornithopod. This specimen represents one of the most compelling and best documented pieces of osteological evidence of Lower Cretaceous non-hadrosauroid iguanodontian dinosaurs in South America and provides further support for the presence of iguanodontians in the southwestern margin of Gondwana since at least the Early Cretaceous, as previously suggested based on footprints.

Historical and archaeogenomic identification of high-status Englishmen at Jamestown, Virginia

The authors report on ancient DNA data from two human skeletons buried within the chancel of the 1608–1616 church at the North American colonial settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. Available archaeological, osteological and documentary evidence suggest that these individuals are Sir Ferdinando Wenman and Captain William West, kinsmen of the colony's first Governor, Thomas West, Third Baron De La Warr. Genomic analyses of the skeletons identify unexpected maternal relatedness as both carried the mitochondrial haplogroup H10e. In this unusual case, aDNA prompted further historical research that led to the discovery of illegitimacy in the West family, an aspect of identity omitted, likely intentionally, from genealogical records.

The life and death of cremated infants and children from the Neo-Punic tophet at Zita, Tunisia

Tophets are Phoenician and Punic sanctuaries where cremated infants and children were buried. Many studies focus on the potentially sacrificial nature of these sites, but this article takes a different approach. Combining osteological analysis with a consideration of the archaeological and wider cultural context, the authors explore the short life-courses and mortuary treatments of 12 individuals in the tophet at the Neo-Punic site of Zita, Tunisia. While osteological evidence suggests life at Zita was hard, and systemic health problems may have contributed to the deaths of these individuals, their mortuary rites were attended to with care and without concrete indication of sacrifice.

A reassessment of the historical fossil findings from Bahia State (Northeast Brazil) reveals a diversified dinosaur fauna in the Lower Cretaceous of South America

ABSTRACT Supposed dinosaur remains were collected between 1859 and 1906 in the Lower Cretaceous Recôncavo Basin (Northeast Brazil). Since these materials remained undescribed, and most were considered lost. Recently, some of these historical specimens were rediscovered in the Natural History Museum of London, providing an opportunity to revisit them after 160 years. The specimens come from five different sites, corresponding to the Massacará (Berriasian-Barremian) and Ilhas (Valanginian-Barremian) groups. Identified bones comprise mainly isolated vertebral centra from ornithopods, sauropods, and theropods. Appendicular remains include a theropod pedal phalanx, humerus, and distal half of a left femur with elasmarian affinities. Despite their fragmentary nature, these specimens represent the earliest dinosaur bones discovered in South America, enhancing our understanding of the Cretaceous dinosaur faunas in Northeast Brazil. The dinosaur assemblage in the Recôncavo Basin resembles coeval units in Northeast Brazil, such as the Rio do Peixe Basin, where ornithopods coexist with sauropods and theropods. This study confirms the presence of ornithischian dinosaurs in Brazil based on osteological evidence, expanding their biogeographic and temporal range before the continental rifting between South America and Africa. Additionally, these findings reinforce the fossiliferous potential of Cretaceous deposits in Bahia State, which have been underexplored since their initial discoveries.

Reconstructing the life histories of a noble couple from the Joseon period, Korea, based on skeletal evidence and historical records

AbstractThis study is an osteobiography of a noble couple who were members of the “ruling elite” in the 18th‐century Joseon period, Korea. The archaeological context and historical records indicate that the couple lived and died during a period marked by strict observance of social hierarchy. The husband's skeleton exhibits clear evidence of craniosynostosis and spinal scoliosis. In particular, congenital craniosynostosis of the skull likely caused deformities in his craniofacial morphology during his lifetime. The physical deformities and discomforts revealed by his craniofacial and vertebral skeleton shed light on the documented passivity and frequent disruptions to his government positions. Meanwhile, his wife's age at death, 93 years, is exceptionally long. The osteological investigation suggests that she seems to have lived without severe stressors. Her skeletal remains show no evidence of occupational stress or chronic disease. Until now, our understanding of the Joseon period nobility has predominantly relied on artifacts and summaries of the deceased's life discovered in tombs, as well as written documents such as diaries, evaluation records, and letters. This study reconstructs the lives of this couple through osteological evidence, historical records, and social context. This holistic approach will provide a novel perspective for a more comprehensive understanding of the lives of nobility and intellectuals of the period.

Reconstruction of the pelvic girdle and hindlimb musculature of the early tetanurans Piatnitzkysauridae (Theropoda, Megalosauroidea).

Piatnitzkysauridae were Jurassic theropods that represented the earliest diverging branch of Megalosauroidea, being one of the earliest lineages to have evolved moderate body size. This clade's typical body size and some unusual anatomical features raise questions about locomotor function and specializations to aid in body support; and other palaeobiological issues. Biomechanical models and simulations can illuminate how extinct animals may have moved, but require anatomical data as inputs. With a phylogenetic context, osteological evidence, and neontological data on anatomy, it is possible to infer the musculature of extinct taxa. Here, we reconstructed the hindlimb musculature of Piatnitzkysauridae (Condorraptor, Marshosaurus, and Piatnitzkysaurus). We chose this clade for future usage in biomechanics, for comparisons with myological reconstructions of other theropods, and for the resulting evolutionary implications of our reconstructions; differential preservation affects these inferences, so we discuss these issues as well. We considered 32 muscles in total: for Piatnitzkysaurus, the attachments of 29 muscles could be inferred based on the osteological correlates; meanwhile, in Condorraptor and Marshosaurus, we respectively inferred 21 and 12 muscles. We found great anatomical similarity within Piatnitzkysauridae, but differences such as the origin of M. ambiens and size of M. caudofemoralis brevis are present. Similarities were evident with Aves, such as the division of the M. iliofemoralis externus and M. iliotrochantericus caudalis and a broad depression for the M. gastrocnemius pars medialis origin on the cnemial crest. Nevertheless, we infer plesiomorphic features such as the origins of M. puboischiofemoralis internus 1 around the "cuppedicus" fossa and M. ischiotrochantericus medially on the ischium. As the first attempt to reconstruct muscles in early tetanurans, our study allows a more complete understanding of myological evolution in theropod pelvic appendages.

The fossil record of appendicular muscle evolution in Synapsida on the line to mammals: Part II-Hindlimb.

This paper is the second in a two-part series that charts the evolution of appendicular musculature along the mammalian stem lineage, drawing upon the exceptional fossil record of extinct synapsids. Here, attention is focused on muscles of the hindlimb. Although the hindlimb skeleton did not undergo as marked a transformation on the line to mammals as did the forelimb skeleton, the anatomy of extant tetrapods indicates that major changes to musculature have nonetheless occurred. To better understand these changes, this study surveyed the osteological evidence for muscular attachments in extinct mammalian and nonmammalian synapsids, two extinct amniote outgroups, and a large selection of extant mammals, saurians, and salamanders. Observations were integrated into an explicit phylogenetic framework, comprising 80 character-state complexes covering all muscles crossing the hip, knee, and ankle joints. These were coded for 33 operational taxonomic units spanning >330 Ma of tetrapod evolution, and ancestral state reconstruction was used to evaluate the sequence of muscular evolution along the stem lineage from Amniota to Theria. The evolutionary history of mammalian hindlimb musculature was complex, nonlinear, and protracted, with several instances of convergence and pulses of anatomical transformation that continued well into the crown group. Numerous traits typically regarded as characteristically "mammalian" have much greater antiquity than previously recognized, and for some traits, most synapsids are probably more reflective of the ancestral amniote condition than are extant saurians. More broadly, this study highlights the utility of the fossil record in interpreting the evolutionary appearance of distinctive anatomies.

The fossil record of appendicular muscle evolution in Synapsida on the line to mammals: Part I-Forelimb.

This paper is the first in a two-part series that charts the evolution of appendicular musculature along the mammalian stem lineage, drawing upon the exceptional fossil record of extinct synapsids. Here, attention is focused on muscles of the forelimb. Understanding forelimb muscular anatomy in extinct synapsids, and how this changed on the line to mammals, can provide important perspective for interpreting skeletal and functional evolution in this lineage, and how the diversity of forelimb functions in extant mammals arose. This study surveyed the osteological evidence for muscular attachments in extinct mammalian and nonmammalian synapsids, two extinct amniote outgroups, and a large selection of extant mammals, saurians, and salamanders. Observations were integrated into an explicit phylogenetic framework, comprising 73 character-state complexes covering all muscles crossing the shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints. These were coded for 33 operational taxonomic units spanning >330 Ma of tetrapod evolution, and ancestral state reconstruction was used to evaluate the sequence of muscular evolution along the stem lineage from Amniota to Theria. In addition to producing a comprehensive documentation of osteological evidence for muscle attachments in extinct synapsids, this work has clarified homology hypotheses across disparate taxa and helped resolve competing hypotheses of muscular anatomy in extinct species. The evolutionary history of mammalian forelimb musculature was a complex and nonlinear narrative, punctuated by multiple instances of convergence and concentrated phases of anatomical transformation. More broadly, this study highlights the great insight that a fossil-based perspective can provide for understanding the assembly of novel body plans.

The Cretan Horse: Still a Unique Breed? Part I: Equines on Crete from the Neolithic to the Ottoman Period

The Cretan (or Messara, Giorgalidiko) horse or pony was first mentioned as a distinct specific horse breed by the Ottomans in 1895. This horse, however, may have a much longer history, perhaps going back to the prehistoric era. It also has an unsure future. Based on a review of available archaeofaunal, iconographical, and historiographical information, the authors identify the characteristics of the Cretan horse, discuss the possible origin of this breed, describe its current breeding status, and present a proposal for its preservation. Domesticated horses (Equus caballus) appeared on the island by the end of the third millennium B.C.E. and became part of the cultural context after the mid-second millennium B.C.E. It is difficult to trace the horse in Crete during Classical antiquity, early Christianity, and the early Middle Ages. It is possible that various breeds of E. caballus were present on the island during the Late Middle Ages. The Cretan horse is understood as part of local tradition, a historical patrimony, and an integral part of Crete‘s cultural heritage. The geographical, climatic, historical, and cultural characteristics of the island were imprinted in its characteristics. The Cretan horse is poorly documented up to this day. It now faces extinction. The authors gathered information and evidence of horses on Crete from the Neolithic period up to the present day. They produced two papers, representing a comprehensive overview of the Equus Cabalus history of the island. The first paper covers the period from prehistoric times up to 1895, when the Cretan horse was declared a special breed by the Ottoman administration and protected legally. The research summarizes archaeological, osteological, iconographical, and historical evidence. The second paper describes the state of the breed during the twentieth century, the current position, its further needs and future prospects.

Camelids in the south of the Iberian Peninsula in Roman and medieval times. Osteological evidence from the city of Cordoba (Spain)

This paper presents the results obtained concerning the possible presence of camelids in the city of Cordoba (Spain) in Roman and medieval times, after the review of all the faunal assemblages corresponding to these historical periods deposited in the Provincial Archaeological Museum of the city. This research has allowed the recovery and contextualization of nine dromedary bone remains corresponding to nine individuals, four of which have been dated by 14C. A stable isotope analysis has also been carried out which indicates the possible arrival of these animals from other provinces of the empire in Roman times and from North Africa in medieval times. Besides, we carried out a bibliographical update of all bone remains found in the Iberian Peninsula for the periods analyzed, concluding that the main use of them was for transporting and manufacturing different tools.

Osteological Evidence of Possible Tuberculosis from the Early Medieval Age (6th–11th Century), Northern Italy

We discuss the probable presence of tuberculosis in non-adults of a medieval rural community in northern Italy with a biocultural perspective. Before birth, mother and child have a closely interconnected relationship, as suggested by the role of microchimerism on maternal health. To better understand maternal–child health and related stress factors, paleopathology has investigated the potential of this relationship in recent years. Diseases with environmental development factors such as infections depend on and are strongly affected by maternal control variables such as, for example, breastfeeding and the growth environment. This article presents ISZ2, the second possible case of childhood tuberculosis identified in northeastern Italy through recent paleopathological criteria. The subject is of primary importance as it not only represents a direct testimony of this infectious disease otherwise known only from historical sources, but also increases our knowledge on the state of health of infants in this area, which to date are scarcely analyzed.

First osteological evidence of severed hands in Ancient Egypt

For the first time, the severed right hands of 12 individuals have been analysed osteologically. The hands were deposited in three pits within a courtyard in front of the throne room of a 15th Dynasty (c.1640–1530 BC) Hyksos palace at Avaris/Tell el-Dab‘a in north-eastern Egypt. Although this kind of practice is known from tomb or temple inscriptions and reliefs from the New Kingdom onwards, this is the first time that physical evidence has been used to learn more about the procedure and the individuals whose hands were taken. Here, we show that the right hands belonged to at least 12 adults, 11 males, and possibly one female. It is unclear if the hands were taken from dead or living individuals. After removing any attached parts of the forearm, the hands were placed in the ground with wide-splayed fingers, mainly on their palmar sides. The osteological analysis not only supports the archaeological interpretation of this evidence but also adds more detail regarding trophy-taking practices in Ancient Egypt.

Integrative approach resolves the systematics of barred wolf snakes in the Lycodon striatus complex (Reptilia, Colubridae)

AbstractWe reviewed the systematics of Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802), including all available name‐bearing types of its synonyms after evaluating phylogeographic (genetics), morphological (morphometry, meristic, and hemipenes), osteological and distribution evidence. Lycodon striatus sensu lato is widely distributed throughout South and Central Asia and mimics elapids. Based on phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA, we demonstrate that populations from (i) eastern and central Peninsular India plus Sri Lanka and (ii) south‐western parts of Central Asia form two different clades representing two distinct species: L. striatus sensu stricto and L. bicolor comb. nov. respectively. These two clades are sisters to L. deccanensis (in the case of L. striatus) and L. jara (in the case of L. bicolor) and together form two main sister radiations. Although the external morphological variability is high in both species, the genetic variability is higher only in L. striatus but not distinct enough to represent more than one species if using the phylogenetic or biological species concept. The phylogeny of the L. aulicus group hints at Sri Lankan L. striatus, likely having evolved in continental Asia through a probable overland dispersal across the Bay of Bengal (present Palk Strait) into Sri Lanka. This dispersal may have been facilitated by low sea levels during the Pleistocene glaciations when Sri Lanka was connected to mainland India. After considering genetic divergence (with a p‐distance of 1.8%–2.1% in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene) and morphological evidence, we synonymize the Sri Lankan subspecies, L. s. sinhaleyus Deraniyagala, 1955, with L. striatus sensu stricto. The eastern and central Indian L. striatus (i.e. L. striatus sensu stricto) is morphologically distinct and deeply divergent genetically compared to Tajik and Pakistani L. bicolor with a p‐distance of 13.6% in cytochrome b gene (mtDNA). Interestingly, L. bicolor is conspecific (p‐distance 1.4%) with L. mackinnoni, a western Himalayan endemic, and it reveals intraspecific clinal variation.

An experimental investigation of cutmark analysis of sharp force trauma in the Bronze Age

Many studies of Bronze Age weaponry have focused on demonstrating the capability and effectiveness of weapons in a combat context, with little or no observation of the osteological evidence for weapon use and trauma. Downing and Fibiger (2017) is the only study to have taken into consideration cutmark analysis of trauma sustained by Bronze Age weapons. The results of their study demonstrated a need for further research to distinguish between cutmarks sustained by Bronze Age swords and dirks, as the two weapons produced cutmarks with similar macroscopic morphologies. The aim of the current study is to re-evaluate the macroscopic and microscopic morphologies of a Late Bronze Age sword and Late Bronze Age dirk to identify characteristics to distinguish wound patterns from these weapons. A total of 13 strikes were performed by the weapons against two Synbone® cylinders and three Sus scrofa forelimbs. The cutmarks produced were analysed macroscopically, microscopically and metrically to observe distinguishing morphologies and discern between the cutmarks sustained by the two weapons. Results showed cutmarks sustained by the Bronze Age sword and dirk exhibited no distinguishing morphologies. Both weapons produced cutmarks characteristic of both knife and sword weapon classes demonstrating that current standards for identification of weapon class are not appropriate for Bronze Age weaponry. Further research should aim to provide a more suited classification system for diagnosing weapon class specifically for distinguishing the Bronze Age sword and dirk.

A new species of feather-tailed leaf-toed gecko, Kolekanos Heinicke, Daza, Greenbaum, Jackman, Bauer, 2014 (Squamata, Gekkonidae) from the poorly explored savannah of western Angola.

We here describe a new species of feather-tailed leaf-toed gecko, Kolekanos, from southern Benguela Province, Angola, based on morphological and osteological evidence, supported by phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial data. The new species adds to the rapidly growing and newly-recognised endemic biodiversity of Angola, doubling the number of Kolekanos species, breaking the pattern observed within other closely-related African members of a clade of circum-Indian Ocean leaf-toed geckos - Ramigekko, Cryptactites and Afrogecko - all of which are presently monotypic. The new species is easily distinguished from K.plumicaudus, based on spine-like (as opposed to feather-like) scales on the margins of the original tail. Phylogenetic analyses also recovered the new taxon as monophyletic, with a well-supported sister relationship to K.plumicaudus, from which it differs by a substantial 24.1% NADH-dehydrogenase subunit 2 mitochondrial gene uncorrected p-distance.

A rise and fall of a Chaghadaid community: demographic growth and crisis in ‘late-medieval’ Semirech'ye (Zhetysu), circa 1248–1345

AbstractThis article analyses long-term population dynamics—growth, decline, sex- and age-composition—in Chaghadaid-era Central Asia in the context of the ‘Late-medieval Crisis’. It is based on a unique dataset of 630 epitaphs from two East Syriac (‘Nestorian') graveyards in the Semirech'ye region (Northwest Tian Shan, North Kyrgyzstan), boosted by archaeological and osteological evidence from the same graveyards. This epigraphic corpus is truly unique in the sense that this is the only surviving data that allow the undertaking of such a quantitative reconstruction of pre-modern Central Asian demography. A close analysis of the corpus, based on the ‘excess mortality’ method, reveals rapid demographic growth between circa 1270 and 1330, despite frequent short-term mortality crises, caused, most likely, by a combination of environmental and political factors. The population growth came to a sudden halt because of a major plague outbreak in 1338–1339, killing about three-quarters of the local population, and initiating what was known as the Black Death of 1347–1353 in West Eurasia and North Africa. The analysis of sex and age ratios indicates that the local population regime was heavily male-dominated. The plague of 1338–1339 targeted primarily younger women, most likely due to pregnancy-related hazards; conversely, in other crisis years, adult males were more susceptible. The findings of the article are wrapped into the wider context of the ‘Late-medieval Crisis’.