Osteological Collection Research Articles

A modern documented Italian identified skeletal collection of 2127 skeletons: the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection

The CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection is a modern and continuously growing identified osteological collection of 2127 skeletons under study in the Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense (LABANOF) in the Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health of the University of Milan (Italy), and part of the Collezione Antropologica LABANOF (CAL). The collection presents individuals of both sexes and of all age groups with a high representation of the elderly and an interesting sample of infants. Each individual is associated with a documentation that includes sex, age-at-death, dates of birth and death, and a death certificate that specifies the exact cause of death and the chain of events that led to it (related pathological conditions or traumatic events). It was also possible to recover for several individuals the autopsy reports and antemortem photographs.This documented osteological collection is of crucial interest in physical and forensic anthropology: it provides unique teaching opportunities and more importantly considerable research possibilities to test and develop sex and age estimation methods, investigate key subjects of forensic relevance and discuss pathological markers, among others. The aim of this paper is to introduce the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection as a new identified skeletal collection and present its research and teaching potential.

Specific-age group sex estimation of infants through geometric morphometrics analysis of pubis and ischium

Sex determination of unknown individuals is one of the primary goals of Physical and Forensic Anthropology. The adult skeleton can be sexed using both morphological and metric traits on a large number of bones. The human pelvis is often used as an important element of adult sex determination. However, studies carried out about the pelvic bone in subadult individuals present several limitations due the absence of sexually dimorphic characteristics. In this study, we analyse the sexual dimorphism of the immature pubis and ischium bones, attending to their shape (Procrustes residuals) and size (centroid size), using an identified sample of subadult individuals composed of 58 individuals for the pubis and 83 for the ischium, aged between birth and 1year of life, from the Granada osteological collection of identified infants (Granada, Spain). Geometric morphometric methods and discriminant analysis were applied to this study. The results of intra- and inter-observer error showed good and excellent agreement in the location of coordinates of landmarks and semilandmarks, respectively. Principal component analysis performed on shape and size variables showed superposition of the two sexes, suggesting a low degree of sexual dimorphism. Canonical variable analysis did not show significant changes between the male and female shapes. As a consequence, discriminant analysis with leave-one-out cross validation provided low classification accuracy. The results suggested a low degree of sexual dimorphism supported by significant sexual dimorphism in the subadult sample and poor cross-validated classification accuracy. The inclusion of centroid size as a discriminant variable does not imply a significant improvement in the results of the analysis. The similarities found between the sexes prevent consideration of pubic and ischial morphology as a sex estimator in early stages of development. The authors suggest extending this study by analysing the different trajectories of shape and size in later ontogeny between males and females.

Anthropological analysis and paleo-demographic study of human skeletal remains from the late ancient necropolis of Biverone (4th-5th c.AD), San Stino Di Livenza (Venice, Italy)

The study of the osteological collections preserved at the Museum of Anthropology – University of Padua coming from archaeological excavations dated to the end of 19th and 20th century, is a great opportunity to disseminate still unpublished anthropological data. The aim of this work was the analysis through modern anthropological methodology of the human skeletal remains brought to light in 1983 at the necropolis of Biverone, municipality of San Stino di Livenza (Venice, Northeast Italy). The site, close to Livenza River, began its decadence in the Late Ancient period (4th-5th c. AD) as a result of regional morphological variations and barbarian invasions, that caused an important local depopulation.
 The study focused on the anthropological analysis of 121 skeletal individuals, trying to better understand the paleodemographic profile, the state of health and the way of life of the ancient population of Biverone. A preliminary identification of the ancestry was attempted, considering the general lack of information about the Late Ancient Venetian populations.

Growth Patterns of the Neurocentral Synchondrosis (NCS) in Immature Cadaveric Vertebra.

Gross anatomic study of osteological specimens. To evaluate the age of closure for the neurocentral synchondrosis (NCS) in all 3 regions of the spine in children aged 1 to 18 years old. The ossification of the human vertebra begins from a vertebral body ossification center and a pair of neural ossification centers located within the centrum called the NCS. These bipolar cartilaginous centers of growth contribute to the growth of the vertebral body, spinal canal, and posterior elements of the spine. The closure of the synchondroses is dependent upon location of the vertebra and previous studies range from 2 to 16 years of age. Although animal and cadaveric studies have been performed regarding NCS growth and early instrumentation's effect on its development, the effects of NCS growth disturbances are still not completely understood. The vertebrae of 32 children (1 to 18 y old) from the Hamann-Todd Osteological collection were analyzed (no 2 or 9 y old specimens available). Vertebrae studied ranged from C1 to L5. A total of 768 vertebral specimens were photographed on a background grid to allow for measurement calibration. Measurements of the right and left NCS, pedicle width at the NCS, and spinal canal area were taken using Scandium image-analysis software (Olympus Soft Imaging Solutions, Germany). The percentage of the growth plate still open was found by dividing the NCS by the pedicle width and multiplying by 100. Data were analyzed with JMP 11 software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). The NCS was 100% open in all 3 regions of the spine in the 1- to 3-year age group. The cervical NCS closed first with completion around 5 years of age. The lumbar NCS was nearly fully closed by age 11. Only the thoracic region remained open through age 17 years. The left and right NCS closed simultaneously as there was no statistical difference between them. In all regions of the spine, the NCS appeared to close sooner in males than in females. Spinal canal area increased with age up to 12 years old in the cervical and thoracic spine but did not significantly change after age 3 in the lumbar spine. In conclusion, closure of the NCS differed among the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine regions. The NCS reached closure in males before females even though females mature faster and reach skeletal maturity sooner than males. However, it is not determined whether the continued open NCS in females to a later age may be a factor in their increased rate of scoliosis.

Cervical Vertebrae at the Galloway Osteological Collection: A Morhphometric Study

Background: Morphometric characteristics of typical cervical vertebrae have been studied across different populations and racial differences have been documented. Morphometry of typical cervical vertebrae are useful reference data for spine surgeons and radiologists in the safe management of patients with cervical spine disorders. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the morphometric characteristics of typical cervical vertebrae (C3-C6). Methods: This was a cross sectional study of 404 typical cervical vertebrae retrieved from the Galloway osteological collection atMakerere University. Linear dimensions were measured using digital Vernier calipers. Data was summarized using descriptive statistics. Inferential statistics were performed using the independent sample t-test to determine differences between males and females. The level of significance was set at 0.05. Results: There was progressive increase in the transverse diameter of the vertebral bodies fromC3-C6. The mean transverse diameter of C3 was (22.1±1.5mm), C4 (22.7±1.65mm), C5 (23.6 ±1.5mm) and, C6 (24.7±1.75mm). There was progressive increase in the length of the laminae from C3-C6. Conversely, the pedicle width progressively reduced from C3-C6. The other linear dimensions measured did not show any logical trend. The transverse diameters of the vertebral body, pedicle width, and lamina dimensions were significantly greater in males than in females (P= 0.028, P= 0.001and P= 0.001 respectively). Conclusion: There is progressive increase in the morphometric dimensions of most parameters of the vertebrae from C3 to C6. Conversely the pedicle width progressively reduces from C3-C6. There are significant differences between males and females.

Eastern Baltic region vs. Western Europe: modelling age related changes in the pubic symphysis and the auricular surface.

Objectives. The present study addresses the following two main questions: a) Is the pattern of skeletal ageing observed in well-known western European reference collections applicable to modern eastern Baltic populations, or are population-specific standards needed? b) What are the consequences for estimating the age-at-death distribution in the target population when differences in the estimates from reference data are not taken into account? Materials and methods. The dataset consists of a modern Lithuanian osteological reference collection, which is the only collection of this type in the eastern Baltic countries (n = 381); and two major western European reference collections, Coimbra (n = 264) and Spitalfields (n = 239). The age-related changes were evaluated using the scoring systems of Suchey-Brooks (Brooks & Suchey 1990) and Lovejoy et al. (1985), and were modelled via regression models for multinomial responses. A controlled experiment based on simulations and the Rostock Manifesto estimation protocol (Wood et al. 2002) was then carried out to assess the effect of using estimates from different reference samples and different regression models on estimates of the age-at-death distribution in the hypothetical target population. Results. The following key results were obtained in this study. a) The morphological alterations in the pubic symphysis were much faster among women than among men at comparable ages in all three reference samples. In contrast, we found no strong evidence in any of the reference samples that sex is an important factor to explain rate of changes in the auricular surface. b) The rate of ageing in the pubic symphysis seems to be similar across the three reference samples, but there is little evidence of a similar pattern in the auricular surface. That is, the estimated rate of age-related changes in the auricular surface was much faster in the LORC and the Coimbra samples than in the Spitalfields sample. c) The results of simulations showed that the differences in the estimates from the reference data result in noticeably different age-at-death distributions in the target population. Thus, a degree bias may be expected if estimates from the western European reference data are used to collect information on ages at death in the eastern Baltic region based on the changes in the auricular surface. d) Moreover, the bias is expected to be more pronounced if the fitted regression model improperly describes the reference data. Conclusions. Differences in the timing of age-related changes in skeletal traits are to be expected among European reference samples, and cannot be ignored when seeking to reliably estimate an age-at-death distribution in the target population. This form of bias should be taken into consideration in further studies of skeletal samples from the eastern Baltic region.

Skull morphometrics of Tragulus and Moschiola for an improved classification of tragulid collections

Mouse-deer, represented by the extant genera Tragulus, Moschiola and Hyemoschus, are among the smallest living ruminants. Today these animals are exclusively distributed in the Indo-Malayan and Afrotropical regions. For the past sixty years, the taxonomic classification of mouse-deer included the species H. aquaticus, T./M. meminna, T. kanchil/T. javanicus, and T. javanicus/T. napu, and these species names were therefore used widely to label material stored in scientific collections. However, recent revisions based on broad phenomic analyses of specimens from collections in Asia, Europe, and North America indicate that there are in fact seven species in Tragulus and three (or four) in Moschiola, and thus challenge works with collection specimens named based on the older classification. This paper presents the results from an independent, multivariate morphometrical analysis of a small sample set of 43 Tragulus and Moschiola skulls kept in public collections in Basel, Munich, Stuttgart, and Vienna that was conducted to explore character diversity. Our results revealed three morphometric clusters in Tragulus and two in Moschiola that concur with some of the recently revised species concepts, i.e. T. napu ('our' Borneo, Sumatra, and Sunda Islands specimens), T. kanchil ('our' Sumatra and Thailand specimens), T. javanicus ('our' Java specimens), M. indica ('our' India specimens) and M. meminna/M. kathygre ('our' Sri Lanka specimens). To assist keepers of osteological collections with the identification of tragulids based on the most recent taxonomy, we have assembled a chart providing revised taxonomic assessments of all 43 specimens included in our analysis. In addition, we have quantified a hitherto undocumented difference in the neurocranium geometry among Asian tragulids. Individuals with a globose neurocranium are shown to belong to T. javanicus and T. kanchil, while those possessing a non-globose neurocranium are in Moschiola spp. and T. napu.

Effect of Age on Nonmetric Cranial Traits for Sex Estimation in Adults

Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) standardized a set of commonly used nonmetric cranial traits, including the nuchal crest, mastoid process, supraorbital margin, glabella, and mental eminence, for sex estimation of unknown skeletal remains. Walker (2008) presented cranial trait scoring data from several populations and developed logistic regression equations to estimate sex from cranial trait scores, which has become a popular method in forensic anthropology. The aim of the present research is to evaluate the effect of age on the scoring of the five cranial traits examined by Walker. A large, uniformly age-distributed sample of adults (20–92 years; n = 272) of European-American and African-American ancestry from the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection was examined by two observers. A third observer contributed data also from the Hamann-Todd Collection (20–85 years; n = 333). Ordinal logistic regression and pseudo-R2 tests revealed some significant effects of age on the mastoid process, supraorbital margin, glabella, and mental eminence, depending on the observer and data set. However, the magnitude of these effects is negligible, with age accounting for a maximum of only 5% of the variance in trait scores. Despite assertions in several commonly used texts that female skulls tend to become more masculinized with age, the results of the present research indicate that age does not play a significant role in the scoring of the five cranial traits evaluated by Walker (2008).KEYWORDS: forensic anthropology, age effect, Walker traits, skull, sex estimation

Study of the medieval domestic cats from Novgorod with reference to cats from medieval Tver (Russia; 10–14 centuries)

AbstractThe aim of this study was to investigate the diversity of cats in the medieval Russian cities of Novgorod and Tver (Russia). Based on the unique osteological collection of 251 feline bones from layers of 10–14 centuries AD, research revealed the prevalence of the “classical” slightly dolichocephalic animals of a smaller size compared to modern domestic cats. Larger specimens are rare, most likely representing wild cats or castrates.

Dental signs attributed to congenital syphilis and its treatments in the Hamann-Todd Skeletal Collection

Syphilis in the United States during the 1800s and 1900s had a high prevalence rate causing great concern to health officials. Various measures were taken to control its spread. Mercuric treatments were used up until the introduction of penicillin. The aim of this paper is to determine whether dental abnormalities related to congenital syphilis in individuals who died of syphilis or syphilis-related causes, in the Hamman Todd Osteological Collection, occur and whether mercurial treatment was effective. Hutchinson, Moon and Fournier’s works were analyzed to determine dental abnormalities associated with congenital syphilis and its treatments and used as criteria. Hillson et al. (AJPA,107:25-40) standardized method of description of dental changes was used. In the Hamman Todd Osteological Collection in Cleveland, Ohio, 102 individuals had cause of death recorded in the catalogue as syphilis or lues, and 69 had causes of death relating to syphilis which included paresis (53), aortic insufficiency (15) and pericarditis (1). Thus altogether 171 individuals were studied. Dentition was examined to determine if dental abnormalities associated with congenital syphilis and its treatments were present in individuals not recorded as having congenital syphilis. Crania were examined for any osteological changes. One individual (2266) demonstrated dental malformations possibly related to the congenital disease itself, while three demonstrated dental abnormalities associated with mercuric treatments in childhood (2118, 2263 and 3097). No remarkable bone pathologies were evident on any skull. The use of pre-penicillin treatment of congenital syphilis may have been effective to maintain health into adulthood but not always in eradicating the infection. Effects of mercury on enamel formation and bone changes, need to be considered when making a differential diagnosis of syphilis/congenital syphilis.

A test of the preauricular sulcus as an indicator of sex.

Although the presence of a preauricular sulcus is often cited as an indicator of female sex, very little research has been conducted to substantiate this claim. This article examines both the relationship between the incidence and morphology of the preauricular sulcus and sex. A total of 500 left ossa coxae from the Hamann-Todd Human Osteological Collection belonging to 261 males and 239 females were examined to investigate the relationship between the preauricular sulcus and sex. The sample includes both American Blacks and Whites. Each individual was scored based on groove presence and morphology. Differences between the sexes in terms of overall prevalence and morphology were investigated using chi-squared tests. Additionally, possible relationships between ancestry and the manifestation of the preauricular sulcus were investigated using multiple regression analysis. Overall, the presence or absence of the preauricular sulcus resulted in correct sex assessment in 75.8% of ossa coxae. However, the accuracy differed between the sexes, with 62.84% of males and 89.96% of females being assessed correctly. Males were significantly more likely to display a short, narrow sulcus (score 4) than females, whereas females were observed to be significantly more likely to have a wide, long sulcus. Ancestry was not related to sulcus manifestation. The results presented here suggest that the presence of a preauricular sulcus should not be considered positive proof of female sex. However, the complete lack of a sulcus could be considered suggestive of male sex.

Nasal morphology assessment of the three predominant South African ancestral groups

Introduction Forensic anthropologists routinely apply metric and non-metric methods to aid in ancestry estimation of unknown skeletal remains. Within the South African (SA) context, legislation implemented during the 20th century may have affected the genetic makeup of population groups to such an extent that differentiation of ancestral groups is a distinct possibility. This study aimed to assess whether trait analysis of the nasal region, using metric and non-metric methods, is an effective approach to differentiation between the three dominant (coloured, black, and white) SA population groups, which is of importance for forensic purposes. Methods Analysis was conducted on crania (n = 196) of known sex, age at death and ancestry. Crania were obtained from two osteological collections in SA. Metric traits measured include the interorbital breadth, nasal height and interaperture width, while the non-metric traits include the extent of the anterior nasal spine, the nasal bone contour, inferior nasal aperture, nasal aperture shape and nasal overgrowth. Results Results showed that four of the five non-metric traits yielded statistically significant differences between the three examined groups. For the three metric traits, significant differences were found between all groups for all traits assessed. Discussion The SA coloured population showed the most intra-population variation and was more closely related to the SA black group with regards to the non-metric traits. The white population group had limited intra-population variation, which provides a basis for differentiating this group from the other groups assessed. In conclusion, differentiation of these three groups is possible, despite the extent of overlapping population variation, when all traits are looked at in combination rather than conducting individual trait analysis.

A reflection on the maintenance of identified skeletal collections state of preservation

The importance of the identified skeletal collections for research and teaching in anthropology is well-known and widely reported. In fact, in recent years, there has been a growing number of new collections around the world, such as the 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection curated in Coimbra, Portugal, the University of Athens Human Skeletal Reference Collection (Greece), Milano Skeletal Collection (Italy), Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona Collection of Identified Human Skeletons (Spain), Granada Osteological Collection (Spain), and the Human Skeletal Reference Collection of Modern and Identified Filipinos (Philippines) to name a few. However, little if any publications have been published about the impact these collections and their state of preservation in the realms of research and teaching. Through the comparative analysis of the general preservation index carried out in a sample of the 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection (CEI/XXI) in 2009 and in 2017, the question of the preservation is addressed. In 2009, Ferreira (2012) examined the preservation of 29 bone/anatomical regions of 70 adult skeletons. In February 2017, the same procedure was made. During this seven years’ period, these skeletons have been used in post-graduation classes, and for various research projects including thermal modification. A Cohen's kappa coefficient was used to examine changes in preservation and show that 55.2% of the cases showed significant changes in preservation (K K

Фаунистический комплекс поселения Тыткескень-VI (к вопросу о начале животноводства в Горном Алтае)

The article is devoted to the publication of osteological collections of the multi-layered settlement Tytkeskene-VI in the Altai Mountains. The settlement is confined to the estuary part of the left bank of Tytkesken - the left-bank tributary of the Katun in its average flow. In the Tytkeskene-VI settlement, stratigraphic observations give a relative chronology, and radiocarbon dates allow obtaining and comparing the absolute and calendar dating of individual complexes and constructing a periodization of Neolithic cultures - the Eneolithic of the Central Katun region. The orderliness of the placement, the horizons saturated with artifacts and bones of animals, allow characterizing the changes in the economy of the Tytkeskene-VI settlement from the era of the developed Neolithic to the paleometal age. The materials of the Tytkeskene-VI settlement give grounds to outline the time of the appearance of cattle breeding in the territory of the Altai Mountains. The authors indicate the emergence of the manufacturing economy in the territory of the Altai Mountains in the era of the late - the final Neolithic. The first domestic species here is the horse. Previously studied materials from the neighboring settlement of Tytkesken-2 generally confirm the data.

Anatomical variations of the sternal angle and anomalies of adult human sterna from the Galloway osteological collection at Makerere University Anatomy Department.

Anatomical variations of the sternal angle and anomalies of the sternum are unique happenings of major clinical significance. It is known that misplaced sternal angles may lead to inaccurate counting of ribs and create challenges with intercostal nerve blocks and needle thoracostomies. Sternal foramina may pose a great hazard during sternal puncture, due to inadvertent cardiac or great vessel injury. These sternal variations and anomalies are rarely reported among Africans. The aim of this study was to determine the anatomical variations of the sternal angle and anomalies of the sternum among adult dry human sterna at the Galloway osteological collection, Makerere University, Uganda. This was a descriptive cross sectional study in which quantitative and qualitative data were collected. The study examined 85 adult human sterna at the Department of Anatomy, Makerere University. Univariate and bivariate analyses were done using SPSS 21.0 for Windows. Over 40% (36/85) of the specimens had variations in size, location and fusion of the sternal angle. There was no significant difference in the mean size of the sternal angle in males at 163.4 ± 6.7o compared with 165.0 ± 6.4o in females (p = 0.481). Of the 85 specimens examined, only 21 (24.7%) had a xiphoid process. The most frequent sternal anomalies were bifid xiphoid process 42.9% (9/21) and sternal foramen 12.9% (11/85). Sternal variations and anomalies are prevalent in the Galloway osteological collection and there is need for increased awareness of these findings as they may determine the accuracy of clinical and other procedures in the thoracic region.

The effect of age and body composition on body mass estimation of males using the stature/bi-iliac method

The stature/bi-iliac breadth method provides reasonably precise, skeletal frame size (SFS) based body mass (BM) estimations across adults as a whole. In this study, we examine the potential effects of age changes in anthropometric dimensions on the estimation accuracy of SFS-based body mass estimation. We use anthropometric data from the literature and our own skeletal data from two osteological collections to study effects of age on stature, bi-iliac breadth, body mass, and body composition, as they are major components behind body size and body size estimations. We focus on males, as relevant longitudinal data are based on male study samples. As a general rule, lean body mass (LBM) increases through adolescence and early adulthood until people are aged in their 30s or 40s, and starts to decline in the late 40s or early 50s. Fat mass (FM) tends to increase until the mid-50s and declines thereafter, but in more mobile traditional societies it may decline throughout adult life. Because BM is the sum of LBM and FM, it exhibits a curvilinear age-related pattern in all societies. Skeletal frame size is based on stature and bi-iliac breadth, and both of those dimensions are affected by age. Skeletal frame size based body mass estimation tends to increase throughout adult life in both skeletal and anthropometric samples because an age-related increase in bi-iliac breadth more than compensates for an age-related stature decline commencing in the 30s or 40s. Combined with the above-mentioned curvilinear BM change, this results in curvilinear estimation bias. However, for simulations involving low to moderate percent body fat, the stature/bi-iliac method works well in predicting body mass in younger and middle-aged adults. Such conditions are likely to have applied to most human paleontological and archaeological samples.

Variability of characteristics of cranial projectile trauma in skeletal material

In cranial firearm trauma, where soft tissues have decomposed, determining the manner of death can pose difficultly for a forensic anthropologist. Detailed analysis of skeletal wounds may lead to reconstruction of the events surrounding death, however considerable research has been conducted on soft tissue details and less has focused on skeletal wounds alone. Macroscopic descriptive observations were carried out on thirteen skulls from the Hamman-Todd Human Osteological Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Ohio which had documented cranial projectile trauma to analyse wound location, shape, size, beveling and projectile paths. This sample of skeletons provides a non-arbitrary selection of individuals which were unclaimed bodies from a disturbed social environment. Nine entry wounds were located on the right side of the skull, 3 located on left side of skull and one had entry under the right side of the skull. Entry wounds were often oval or round in shape. Exit wounds were not present in all cases; however, when present they were of irregular shape. Radiating fractures occurred in 8 entry wounds and 8 exit wounds. Concentric fractures accompanied 3 exit wounds. Three entry wounds had clear internal beveling. Three cases had exit wounds with external beveling. One showed signs of combination beveling on the entry wound. Beveling, if present, can lead to identifying the entry/exit wound. Radiating fractures form when the intracranial pressure is too great and if the pressure is not relieved, concentric fractures form secondarily. Based on the characteristics of the cranial projectile trauma one can suggest manner of death, however, it is not possible to reach a firm decision.

A brief history of syphilis in the Czech Lands

From the end of the fifteenth century, the massive expansion of syphilis had a distinct effect on the historical development of Europe. Due to this disease, firstly the numbers of the European population were reduced; thereafter, moral and ethical principles were significantly affected and the combat readiness of armies decreased. The disease forced new legislation which was of vital importance for the development of health services. The Czech Lands, located in Central Europe, were also no exception. The material presented summarises the available information on this disease obtained from written sources and from the study of direct evidence of skeletal remains from archaeological sites of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. Traces of syphilitic bone affliction have observed in almost every large early modern osteological collection to date. A number of currently documented palaeopathological findings of syphilitic changes in bones from the Czech Lands do not by a long stretch correspond to the data presented in literary sources on the mass occurrence of this disease. The submitted study aims to extend current knowledge in this area and thereby to complete a complex view of the development of syphilis in Central Europe.

Sex estimation of infants through geometric morphometric analysis of the ilium.

In archeology or forensics, the analysis of the ilia is often used to determine the age and sex of unknown individuals. However, sex determination using the skeletal remains of individuals who did not develop secondary sexual characteristics remains controversial. Accurately estimating the sex of subadults is hampered by a small number of studies based on identified skeletal collections of juvenile individuals. Here, we analyzed the sexual dimorphism of the subadult ilia using geometric morphometric techniques and individuals from the osteological collection of identified subadults from San José's graveyard (Granada). Seventy-one left ilia from 40 males and 31 females aged between birth and 1year were included in the analysis. Three landmarks and 27 semi-landmarks of the ilia were placed. By principal component analysis, we found that the size and shape of the ilia could be used to differentiate males and females.

A morphometric survey of the parasellar region in more than 2700 skulls: emphasis on the middle clinoid process variants and implications in endoscopic and microsurgical approaches.

OBJECTIVE The middle clinoid process (MCP) is a bony projection that extends from the sphenoid bone near the lateral margin of the sella turcica. The varied prevalence and morphological features of the MCP in populations stratified by age, race, and sex are unknown; however, the knowledge of its anatomy and preoperative recognition on CT scans can aid greatly in complication avoidance and management. The aim of this study was to further illustrate the surgical anatomy of the parasellar region and to quantify the incidence of MCP and caroticoclinoid rings (CCRs) in dried preserved human anatomical specimens. METHODS The presence, dimensions, morphological classification (incomplete, contact, and CCR), and intracranial relations of the MCP were measured in 2726 dried skull specimens at the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. Specific morphometric data points were recorded from each of these hemiskulls, and categorized based on age, sex, and ethnicity. Linear and logistic regressions were used to determine associations between explanatory variables and MCP morphology. Computed tomography scans of the skull specimens were obtained to explore radiological landmarks for different types of MCPs. Illustrative intraoperative videos were also analyzed in the light of these crucial surgical landmarks. RESULTS The sample included 2250 specimens from males and 476 from females. Specimens were classified as either "white" (60.5%) or "black" (39.2%). An MCP was found in 42% of specimens, with 60% of those specimens presenting bilaterally. Fully ossified CCR comprised 27% of all MCPs, and contact (defined as contact without ossification between MCP and anterior clinoid process) comprised 4% of all MCPs. White race (relative to black race) and increasing age were significant predictors of MCP presence (p < 0.001). White race was significantly associated with greater average MCP height (p < 0.001). Among skulls with CCR, both male sex and older age (> 70 years relative to < 50 years) were associated with increased CCR diameter (p < 0.001). No other significant predictors or associations were observed. The CT scans of skulls replicated and validated the authors' morphometric observations on incomplete, contact, and CCR patterns adequately. The surgical strategies of clinoid bone removal are validated, with appropriate video illustrations. CONCLUSIONS Variations in the patterns of bony MCPs can pose a significant risk for injury to the internal carotid artery during parasellar procedures, especially those involving clinoidectomy and optic strut drilling. Understanding parasellar anatomy, especially on skull-base CT imaging, may be integral to surgical planning and preoperative risk counseling in both transcranial and extended endonasal procedures, as well as to preparing for complications management perioperatively.