Osteocyte Cell Research Articles

SOST/Sclerostin impairs the osteogenesis and angiogesis in glucocorticoid-associated osteonecrosis of femoral head.

Glucocorticoid-associated osteonecrosis of the femoral head (GA-ONFH) is a progressive bone disorder which frequently results in femoral head collapse and hip joint dysfunction. Sclerostin (SOST) is principally secreted by osteocytes in bone and plays an important role in bone homeostasis and homeostasis of skeletal integrity. Our previous study reported that short-term use of glucocorticoid increased serum sclerostin levels. Here this study is aimed to identify whether sclerostin played an essential role in the occurrence and development of GA-ONFH. Glucocorticoid-induced osteonecrosis of femoral head (ARCO stage II) samples were collected and sclerostin staining was conducted. Osteocyte cell line Ocy454, MC3T3-E1 and endothelial cells was used. MC3T3-E1 or endothelial cells were co-cultured with Ocy454 or SOST-silencing Ocy454 in presence of dexamethasone to mimic the crosstalk of various cells in the bone niche. GA-ONFH rat model and SOST knockout model was built to better understand the phenomenon in vivo. Sclerostin was highly concentrated in osteonecrosis patient sample in the necrotic area. Co-culture with osteocytes aggravated the inhibition of dexamethasone on MC3T3-E1 and endothelial cells. Sclerostin derived from osteocytes impaired osteogenesis and angiogenesis via inhibiting the Wnt pathway. In GA-ONFH rat model, SOST knockout ameliorated the incidence of osteonecrosis and improved bone metabolism compared with the wild type group through histological, immunohistochemical and bone metabolic analyses. Sclerostin contribute to pathologic process of GA-ONFH by impairing osteogenesis and angiogenesis.

Osteocyte Sptbn1 Deficiency Alters Cell Survival and Mechanotransduction Following Formation of Plasma Membrane Disruptions (PMD) from Mechanical Loading.

We and others have shown that application of high-level mechanical loading promotes the formation of transient plasma membrane disruptions (PMD) which initiate mechanotransduction. We hypothesized that increasing osteocyte cell membrane fragility, by disrupting the cytoskeleton-associated protein β2-spectrin (Sptbn1), could alter osteocytic responses and bone adaptation to loading in a PMD-related fashion. In MLO-Y4 cells, treatment with the spectrin-disrupting agent diamide or knockdown of Sptbn1 via siRNA increased the number of PMD formed by fluid shear stress. Primary osteocytes from an osteocyte-targeted DMP1-Cre Sptbn1 conditional knockout (CKO) model mimicked trends seen with diamide and siRNA treatment and suggested the creation of larger PMD, which repaired more slowly, for a given level of stimulus. Post-wounding cell survival was impaired in all three models, and calcium signaling responses from the wounded osteocyte were mildly altered in Sptbn1 CKO cultures. Although Sptbn1 CKO mice did not demonstrate an altered skeletal phenotype as compared to WT littermates under baseline conditions, they showed a blunted increase in cortical thickness when subjected to an osteogenic tibial loading protocol as well as evidence of increased osteocyte death (increased lacunar vacancy) in the loaded limb after 2weeks of loading. The impaired post-wounding cell viability and impaired bone adaptation seen with Sptbn1 disruption support the existence of an important role for Sptbn1, and PMD formation, in osteocyte mechanotransduction and bone adaptation to mechanical loading.

Driving Osteocytogenesis from Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Osteon-like Biomimetic Nanofibrous Scaffolds.

The treatment of critical-sized bone defects caused by tumor removal, skeletal injuries, or infections continues to pose a major clinical challenge. A popular potential alternative solution to autologous bone grafts is a tissue-engineered approach that utilizes the combination of mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) with synthetic biomaterial scaffolds. This approach aims to support new bone formation by mimicking many of the biochemical and biophysical cues present within native bone. Regrettably, osteocyte cells, crucial for bone maturation and homeostasis, are rarely produced within MSC-seeded scaffolds, thereby restricting the development of fully mature cortical bone from these synthetic implants. In this work, we have constructed a multimodal scaffold by combining electrospun poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) fibrous scaffolds with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based hydrogels that mimic the functional unit of cortical bone, osteon (osteon-mimetic) scaffolds. These scaffolds were decorated with a novel bone morphogenic protein-6 (BMP6) peptide (BMP6p) after our findings revealed that the BMP6p drives higher levels of Smad signaling than the full-length protein counterpart, soluble or when bound to the PEG hydrogel backbone. We show that our osteon-mimetic scaffolds, in presenting concentric layers of BMP6p-PEG hydrogel overlaid on MSC-seeded PLGA nanofibers, promoted the rapid formation of osteocyte-like cells with a phenotypic dendritic morphology, producing early osteocyte markers, including E11/gp38 (E11). Maturation of these osteocyte-like cells was further confirmed by the observation of significant dentin matrix protein 1 (DMP1) throughout our bilayered scaffolds after 3 weeks, even when cultured in a medium without dexamethasone (DEX) or any other osteogenic supplements. These results demonstrate that these osteon-mimetic scaffolds, in presenting biochemical and topographical cues reminiscent of the forming osteon, can drive the formation of osteocyte-like cells in vitro from hBMSCs without the need for any osteogenic factor media supplementation.

Increased Osteoblastic and Osteocytic in Vitro Cell Viability by Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis).

Yerba mate (YM, Ilex paraguariensis) consumption beneficially affects the bones. However, whether YM components exert their effect on bone cells directly remains elusive. We evaluated how main YM components affect osteoblastic (MC3T3-E1) and osteocytic (MLO-Y4) cells in vitro when administered separately or in an aqueous extract. MC3T3-E1 and MLO-Y4 cells were exposed to three different experimental conditions: (1) Caffeine, chlorogenic acid, and their combinations; (2) Caffeine, rutin, and their combinations; (3) Aqueous YM extract. All polyphenol and caffeine concentrations as well as that of their tested combinations significantly increased MC3T3-E1 cell viability from 16.6% to 34.8% compared to the control. In MLO-Y4 cells, the lowest rutin and the two highest caffeine concentrations significantly increased cell viability by 11.9, 14.9, and 13.7%, respectively. While rutin and caffeine combinations tended to increase MLO-Y4 cell viability, different chlorogenic acid and caffeine combinations did not affect it. Finally, the aqueous YM extract significantly increased MLO-Y4, MC3T3-E1, and differentiated MC3T3-E1 cell viability compared to the control without treatment. YM components (rutin, chlorogenic acid, and caffeine) positively affected bone cells, mainly pre-osteoblast cells. Moreover, the aqueous YM extract significantly increased MLO-Y4, MC3T3-E1, and differentiated MC3T3-E1 cell viabilities indicating an additional relevant nutritional property of YM infusion. Further studies would be required to elucidate the underlying effector mechanism of YM on the bones and its relationship with previously described in vivo positive effects.

Dexamethasone Induced Osteocyte Apoptosis in Steroid-Induced Femoral Head Osteonecrosis through ROS-Mediated Oxidative Stress.

Glucocorticoid (GC) overuse is strongly associated with steroid-induced osteonecrosis of the femoral head (SINFH). However, the underlying mechanism of SINFH remains unclear. This study aims to investigate the effect of dexamethasone (Dex)-induced oxidative stress on osteocyte apoptosis and the underlying mechanisms. Ten patients with SINFH and 10 patients with developmental dysplasia of the hips (DDH) were enrolled in our study. Sixty rats were randomly assigned to the Control, Dex, Dex + N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), Dex + Dibenziodolium chloride (DPI), NAC, and DPI groups. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to examine edema in the femoral head of rats. Histopathological staining was performed to assess osteonecrosis. Immunofluorescence staining with TUNEL and 8-OHdG was conducted to evaluate osteocyte apoptosis and oxidative damage. Immunohistochemical staining was carried out to detect the expression of NOX1, NOX2, and NOX4. Viability and apoptosis of MLO-Y4 cells were measured using the CCK-8 assay and TUNEL staining. 8-OHdG staining was conducted to detect oxidative stress. 2',7'-Dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) staining was performed to measure reactive oxygen species (ROS). The expression of NOX1, NOX2, and NOX4 in MLO-Y4 cells was analyzed by Western blotting. Multiple comparisons were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). In patients and the rat model, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining revealed a significantly higher rate of empty lacunae in the SINFH group than in the DDH group. Immunofluorescence staining indicated a significant increase in TUNEL-positive cells and 8-OHdG-positive cells in the SINFH group compared to the DDH group. Immunohistochemical staining demonstrated a significant increase in the expression of NOX1, NOX2, and NOX4 proteins in SINFH patients compared to DDH patients. Moreover, immunohistochemical staining showed a significant increase in the proportion of NOX2-positive cells compared to the Control group in the femoral head of rats. In vitro, Dex significantly inhibited the viability of osteocyte cells and induced apoptosis. After Dex treatment, the intracellular ROS level increased. However, Dex treatment did not alter the expression of NOX proteins in vitro. Additionally, NAC and DPI inhibited the generation of intracellular ROS and partially alleviated osteocyte apoptosis in vivo and in vitro. This study demonstrates that GC promotes apoptosis of osteocyte cells through ROS-induced oxidative stress. Furthermore, we found that the increased expression of NOXs induced by GC serves as an important source of ROS generation.

Ferroptosis in Osteocytes as a Target for Protection Against Postmenopausal Osteoporosis.

Ferroptosis is a necrotic form of iron-dependent regulatory cell death. Estrogen withdrawal can interfere with iron metabolism, which is responsible for the pathogenesis of postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP). Here, it is demonstrated that estrogen withdrawal induces iron accumulation in the skeleton and the ferroptosis of osteocytes, leading to reduced bone mineral density. Furthermore, the facilitatory effect of ferroptosis of osteocytes is verified in the occurrence and development of postmenopausal osteoporosis is associated with over activated osteoclastogenesis using a direct osteocyte/osteoclast coculture system and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) knockout ovariectomized mice. In addition, the nuclear factor erythroid derived 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway is confirmed to be a crucial factor in the ferroptosis of osteocytic cells. Nrf2 regulates the expression of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL) by regulating the DNA methylation level of the RANKL promoter mediated by DNA methyltransferase 3a (Dnmt3a), which is as an important mechanism in osteocytic ferroptosis-mediated osteoclastogenesis. Taken together, this data suggests that osteocytic ferroptosis is involved in PMOP and can be targeted to tune bone homeostasis.

Comparison of the differentiation of ovine fetal bone-marrow mesenchymal stem cells towards osteocytes on chitosan/alginate/CuO-NPs and chitosan/alginate/FeO-NPs scaffolds

In the current study, the creation of a chitosan/alginate scaffold hydrogel with and without FeO-NPs or CuO-NPs was studied. From fetal ovine bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) were isolated and cultivated. Their differentiation into osteocyte and adipose cells was investigated. Also, on the scaffolds, cytotoxicity and apoptosis were studied. To investigate the differentiation, treatment groups include: (1) BM-MSCs were plated in DMEM culture medium with high glucose containing 10% FBS and antibiotics (negative control); (2) BM-MSCs were plated in osteogenic differentiation medium (positive control); (3) positive control group + FeO-NPs, (4) positive control group + CuO-NPs; (5) BM-MSCs were plated in osteogenic differentiation medium on chitosan/alginate scaffold; (6) BM-MSCs were plated in osteogenic differentiation medium on chitosan/alginate/FeO-NPs scaffold; and (7) BM-MSCs were plated in osteogenic differentiation medium on chitosan/alginate/CuO-NPs scaffold. Alkaline phosphatase enzyme concentrations, mineralization rate using a calcium kit, and mineralization measurement by alizarin staining quantification were evaluated after 21 days of culture. In addition, qRT-PCR was used to assess the expression of the ALP, ColA, and Runx2 genes. When compared to other treatment groups, the addition of CuO-NPs in the chitosan/alginate hydrogel significantly increased the expression of the ColA and Runx2 genes (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant difference between the chitosan/alginate hydrogel groups containing FeO-NPs and CuO-NPs in the expression of the ALP gene. It appears that the addition of nanoparticles, in particular CuO-NPs, has made the chitosan/alginate scaffold more effective in supporting osteocyte differentiation.

Chitosan/alginate scaffold enhanced with Berberis vulgaris extract for osteocyte differentiation of ovine fetal stem cells

AbstractDesigning biocompatible polymers using plant derivatives can be extremely useful in tissue engineering, nanomedicine, and many other fields of medicine. In this study, it was first looked into how chitosan/alginate scaffolds were made and characterized in the presence of berberine and barberry fruit extract. Second, the process of proliferation and differentiation of ovine fetal BM‐MSCs (bone marrow‐mesenchymal stem cells) was assessed on these scaffolds after BM‐MSCs were extracted and confirmed by developing into osteocyte and adipose cells. To investigate the differentiation, treatment groups include (1) ovine fetal BM‐MSCs were plated in Dulbecco's modified eagle medium culture medium with high glucose containing 10% fetal bovine serum and antibiotics (negative control), (2) ovine fetal BM‐MSCs were plated in osteogenic differentiation medium (positive control group), (3) positive control group + barberry fruit extract, (4) positive control group + berberine, (5) ovine fetal BM‐MSCs were plated in osteogenic differentiation medium on chitosan/alginate scaffold (hydrogel group), (6) ovine fetal BM‐MSCs were plated in osteogenic differentiation medium on chitosan/alginate/barberry fruit extract scaffold (hydrogel group containing barberry fruit extract), and (7) ovine fetal BM‐MSCs were plated in osteogenic differentiation medium on chitosan/alginate/berberine scaffold (hydrogel group containing berberine). Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) enzyme concentrations, mineralization rate using a calcium kit, and mineralization measurement by alizarin staining quantification were all found after 21 days of culture. In addition, real‐time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to assess the expression of the ALP, COL1A2, and Runx2 genes. Days 5 and 7 had the lowest water absorption by the hydrogel scaffold containing barberry extract, which was significant in comparison to other groups (p &lt; .05). Among the hydrogel scaffolds under study, the one containing barberry extract exhibited the lowest tensile strength, and this difference was statistically significant (p &lt; .05). The chitosan/alginate hydrogel has the highest tensile strength of all of them. In comparison to the control and other treatment groups, the inclusion of berberine in the chitosan/alginate hydrogel significantly increased the expression of the ALP, Runx2, and COL1A2 genes (p &lt; .05). The osteocyte differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells in in vitro settings appears to have been enhanced by the inclusion of berberine in the chitosan/alginate scaffold.

Gingival Fibroblasts Are Sensitive to Oral Cell Lysates Indicated by Their IL11 Expression.

Damaged cells that appear as a consequence of invasive dental procedures or in response to dental materials are supposed to release damage-associated signals. These damage-associated signals not only support tissue regeneration but might also contribute to unwanted fibrosis. The aim of this study was to identify a molecular target that reflects how fibroblasts respond to necrotic oral tissue cells. To simulate the cell damage, we prepared necrotic cell lysates by sonication of the osteocytic cell line IDG-SW3 and exposed them to gingival fibroblasts. RNAseq revealed a moderate increase in IL11 expression in the gingival fibroblasts, a pleiotropic cytokine involved in fibrosis and inflammation, and also in regeneration following trauma. Necrotic lysates of the human squamous carcinoma cell lines HSC2 and TR146, as well as of gingival fibroblasts, however, caused a robust increase in IL11 expression in the gingival fibroblasts. Consistently, immunoassay revealed significantly increased IL11 levels in the gingival fibroblasts when exposed to the respective lysates. Considering that IL11 is a TGF-β target gene, IL11 expression was partially blocked by SB431542, a TGF-β receptor type I kinase inhibitor. Moreover, lysates from the HSC2, TR146, and gingival fibroblasts caused a moderate smad2/3 nuclear translocation in the gingival fibroblasts. Taken together and based on IL11 expression, our findings show that fibroblasts are sensitive to damaged oral tissue cells.

Bone Hierarchical Structure: Heterogeneity and Uniformity

AbstractBone has a complex hierarchical structure with structural integration from nm to cm. The understanding of bone structure is developing rapidly due to improvements in available methodologies that allow unravelling structures across several length scales. These methods include advances in electron microscopy, in particular, focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB‐SEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy techniques, X‐ray imaging, X‐ray diffraction tomography (XRD‐CT), and tensor tomography (small angle X‐ray scattering tensor tomgraphy, SAXS‐TT and wide angle X‐ray scattering tensor tomgraphy, WAXS‐TT). Special emphasis is placed on the latter X‐ray techniques that are emerging into powerful tools. Through a review of selected recent results on the structure of the bone matrix as well as the lacuno‐canalicular network housing the osteocyte cells of bone, it is proposed that bone is more heterogeneous than typically described and that local variation in composition and crystallography may play a significant role in bone biology in health and disease.

Osteocyte RANKL Drives Bone Resorption in Mouse Ligature-Induced Periodontitis.

Mouse ligature-induced periodontitis (LIP) has been used to study bone loss in periodontitis. However, the role of osteocytes in LIP remains unclear. Furthermore, there is no consensus on the choice of alveolar bone parameters and time points to evaluate LIP. Here, we investigated the dynamics of changes in osteoclastogenesis and bone volume (BV) loss in LIP over 14 days. Time-course analysis revealed that osteoclast induction peaked on days 3 and 5, followed by the peak of BV loss on day 7. Notably, BV was restored by day 14. The bone formation phase after the bone resorption phase was suggested to be responsible for the recovery of bone loss. Electron microscopy identified bacteria in the osteocyte lacunar space beyond the periodontal ligament (PDL) tissue. We investigated how osteocytes affect bone resorption of LIP and found that mice lacking receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL), predominantly in osteocytes, protected against bone loss in LIP, whereas recombination activating 1 (RAG1)-deficient mice failed to resist it. These results indicate that T/B cells are dispensable for osteoclast induction in LIP and that RANKL from osteocytes and mature osteoblasts regulates bone resorption by LIP. Remarkably, mice lacking the myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MYD88) did not show protection against LIP-induced bone loss. Instead, osteocytic cells expressed nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 1 (NOD1), and primary osteocytes induced significantly higher Rankl than primary osteoblasts when stimulated with a NOD1 agonist. Taken together, LIP induced both bone resorption and bone formation in a stage-dependent manner, suggesting that the selection of time points is critical for quantifying bone loss in mouse LIP. Pathogenetically, the current study suggests that bacterial activation of osteocytes via NOD1 is involved in the mechanism of osteoclastogenesis in LIP. The NOD1-RANKL axis in osteocytes may be a therapeutic target for bone resorption in periodontitis. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Insights into the antiosteoporotic mechanism of the soy-derived isoflavone genistein: Modulation of the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling.

Bone remodeling is a process that involves osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes, and different intracellular signaling, such as the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Dysregulations of this pathway may also occur during secondary osteoporosis, as in the case of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (GIO), which accelerates osteoblast and osteocyte apoptosis by reducing bone formation, osteoblast differentiation and function, accelerates in turn osteoblast, and osteocyte apoptosis. Genistein is a soy-derived nutrient belonging to the class of isoflavones that reduces bone loss in osteopenic menopausal women, inhibiting bone resorption; however, genistein may also favor bone formation. The aim of this study was to investigate whether estrogen receptor stimulation by genistein might promote osteoblast and osteocyte function during glucocorticoid challenge. Primary osteoblasts, collected from C57BL6/J mice, and MLO-A5 osteocyte cell line were used to reproduce an in vitro model of GIO by adding dexamethasone (1 μM) for 24 h. Cells were then treated with genistein for 24 h and quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) and western blot were performed to study whether genistein activated the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Dexamethasone challenge reduced bone formation in primary osteoblasts and bone mineralization in osteocytes; moreover, canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway was reduced following incubation with dexamethasone in both osteoblasts and osteocytes. Genistein reverted these changes and this effect was mediated by both estrogen receptors α and β. These data suggest that genistein could induce bone remodeling through Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation.

Osseointegration effects of whey protein (histological and histomorphological observations): An experimental study on rabbits

Background: Whey protein is the green-yellow colored, liquid portion of the milk, and it is also called the cheese serum, it is obtained after the separation of curd, during the coagulation of the milk. It contains a considerable amount of α-helix pattern with an evenly distributed hydrophobic and hydrophilic as well as basic and acidic amino acids along with their polypeptide chain. The major whey protein constituents include β-lactoglobulin (β-LG),α-lactalbumin (α-LA), immunoglobulins (IG), bovine serum albumin (BSA), bovine lactoperoxidase (LP), bovine lactoferrin (BLF) and minor amounts of a glycol macro peptide (GMP). Osseointegration can be defined as a process that is immune driven which leads to the formation of the new bone surrounding the surface of the implant rather than a pure response of the bone. Titanium can activate a balance recognized to be tolerogenic with a peri-implant tissue leading to a "foreign body equilibrium (FBE)" response. Materials and methods: Twelve adult male white New Zealand healthy rabbits were used in this study, the animals were divided into two groups according to the time of scarification as follows; 2 and 6 weeks after the implantation (6 rabbits will be sacrificed for each group). Results: Statistical analysis showed that there is a highly significant difference in all parameters between the experimental group and control group at 2 weeks and 6 weeks periods. Histological results at 2 weeks period showed thread formation in whey protein and control group, distribution of osteocyte cells and osteoblast was higher in whey protein, and the bone trabecular area was also larger in whey protein groups but at 6 weeks showed mature bone in whey protein groups while in control group still woven bone. Conclusions: Whey protein is an effective in osseointegration because it enhances bone formation.

P-406 Development of a 3D bioreactor model using a perfusion bioreactor to study osteocyte progenitor cells and the Involvement of single ECM molecules in multiple myeloma bone disease

P-406 Development of a 3D bioreactor model using a perfusion bioreactor to study osteocyte progenitor cells and the Involvement of single ECM molecules in multiple myeloma bone disease

The myosin and RhoGAP MYO9B influences osteocyte dendrite growth and responses to mechanical stimuli.

Introduction: Myosin IXB (MYO9B) is an unconventional myosin with RhoGAP activity and thus is a regulator of actin cytoskeletal organization. MYO9B was previously shown to be necessary for skeletal growth and health and to play a role in actin-based functions of both osteoblasts and osteoclasts. However, its role in responses to mechanical stimulation of bone cells has not yet been described. Therefore, experiments were undertaken to determine the role of MYO9B in bone cell responses to mechanical stress both in vitro and in vivo. Methods: MYO9B expression was knocked down in osteoblast and osteocyte cell lines using RNA interference and the resulting cells were subjected to mechanical stresses including cyclic tensile strain, fluid shear stress, and plating on different substrates (no substrate vs. monomeric or polymerized collagen type I). Osteocytic cells were also subjected to MYO9B regulation through Slit-Robo signaling. Further, wild-type or Myo9b -/- mice were subjected to a regimen of whole-body vibration (WBV) and changes in bone quality were assessed by micro-CT. Results: Unlike control cells, MYO9B-deficient osteoblastic cells subjected to uniaxial cyclic tensile strain were unable to orient their actin stress fibers perpendicular to the strain. Osteocytic cells in which MYO9B was knocked down exhibited elongated dendrites but were unable to respond normally to treatments that increase dendrite length such as fluid shear stress and Slit-Robo signaling. Osteocytic responses to mechanical stimuli were also found to be dependent on the polymerization state of collagen type I substrates. Wild-type mice responded to WBV with increased bone tissue mineral density values while Myo9b -/- mice responded with bone loss. Discussion: These results demonstrate that MYO9B plays a key role in mechanical stress-induced responses of bone cells in vitro and in vivo.

Identification of an intronic enhancer regulating RANKL expression in osteocytic cells

The bony skeleton is continuously renewed throughout adult life by the bone remodeling process, in which old or damaged bone is removed by osteoclasts via largely unknown mechanisms. Osteocytes regulate bone remodeling by producing the osteoclast differentiation factor RANKL (encoded by the TNFSF11 gene). However, the precise mechanisms underlying RANKL expression in osteocytes are still elusive. Here, we explored the epigenomic landscape of osteocytic cells and identified a hitherto-undescribed osteocytic cell-specific intronic enhancer in the TNFSF11 gene locus. Bioinformatics analyses showed that transcription factors involved in cell death and senescence act on this intronic enhancer region. Single-cell transcriptomic data analysis demonstrated that cell death signaling increased RANKL expression in osteocytic cells. Genetic deletion of the intronic enhancer led to a high-bone-mass phenotype with decreased levels of RANKL in osteocytic cells and osteoclastogenesis in the adult stage, while RANKL expression was not affected in osteoblasts or lymphocytes. These data suggest that osteocytes may utilize a specialized regulatory element to facilitate osteoclast formation at the bone surface to be resorbed by linking signals from cellular senescence/death and RANKL expression.

Osteocytes Exposed to Titanium Particles Inhibit Osteoblastic Cell Differentiation via Connexin 43

Periprosthetic osteolysis (PPO) induced by wear particles is the most severe complication of total joint replacement; however, the mechanism behind PPO remains elusive. Previous studies have shown that osteocytes play important roles in wear-particle-induced osteolysis. In this study, we investigated the effects of connexin 43 (Cx43) on the regulation of osteocyte-to-osteoblast differentiation. We established an in vivo murine model of calvarial osteolysis induced by titanium (Ti) particles. The osteolysis characteristic and osteogenesis markers in the osteocyte-selective Cx43 (CKO)-deficient and wild-type (WT) mice were observed. The calvarial osteolysis induced by Ti particles was partially attenuated in CKO mice. The expression of β-catenin and osteogenesis markers increased significantly in CKO mice. In vitro, the osteocytic cell line MLO-Y4 was treated with Ti particles. The co-culturing of MLO-Y4 cells with MC3T3-E1 osteoblastic cells was used to observe the effects of Ti-treated osteocytes on osteoblast differentiation. When Cx43 of MLO-Y4 cells was silenced or overexpressed, β-catenin was detected. Additionally, co-immunoprecipitation detection of Cx43 and β-catenin binding in MLO-Y4 cells and MC3T3-E1 cells was performed. Finally, β-catenin expression in MC3T3-E1 cells and osteoblast differentiation were evaluated after 18α-glycyrrhetinic acid (18α-GA) was used to block the intercellular communication of Cx43 between MLO-Y4 and MC3T3-E1 cells. Ti particles increased Cx43 expression and decreased β-catenin expression in MLO-Y4 cells. The silencing of Cx43 increased the β-catenin expression, and the over-expression of Cx43 decreased the β-catenin expression. In the co-culture model, Ti treatment of MLO-Y4 cells inhibited the osteoblastic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells and Cx43 silencing in MLO-Y4 cells attenuated the inhibitory effects on osteoblastic differentiation. With Cx43 silencing in the MLO-Y4 cells, the MC3T3-E1 cells, co-cultured alongside MLO-Y4, displayed decreased Cx43 expression, increased β-catenin expression, activation of Runx2, and promotion of osteoblastic differentiation in vitro co-culture. Finally, Cx43 expression was found to be negatively correlated to the activity of the Wnt signaling pathway, mostly through the Cx43 binding of β-catenin from its translocation to the nucleus. The results of our study suggest that Ti particles increased Cx43 expression in osteocytes and that osteocytes may participate in the regulation of osteoblast function via the Cx43 during PPO.

Evocalcet Rescues Secondary Hyperparathyroidism-driven Cortical Porosity in CKD Male Rats.

To elucidate the effect of evocalcet, a new oral calcimimetic to bone of secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) with chronic kidney disease (CKD), the rats were 5/6 nephrectomized and fed on a high-phosphate diet. The treated rats were then divided into vehicle groups and evocalcet administered groups. The rats in the vehicle groups exhibited increased levels of serum PTH and inorganic phosphate (Pi) levels, high bone turnover, and severe cortical porosity, mimicking SHPT (CKD-SHPT rats). The cortical bone of the CKD-SHPT rats showed broad demineralization around the osteocytes, suppression of Phex/small integrin-binding ligand N-linked glycoprotein-mediated mineralization in the periphery of the osteocytic lacunae, and increased levels of osteocytic cell death, all of which were considered as the first steps of cortical porosity. In contrast, evocalcet ameliorated the increased serum PTH levels, the enlarged osteocytic lacunae, and the cortical porosity of the CKD-SHPT rats. Osteocytes of CKD-SHPT rats strongly expressed PTH receptor and Pit1/Pit2, which sense extracellular Pi, indicating that PTH and Pi affected these osteocytes. Cell death of cultured osteocytes increased in a Pi concentration-dependent manner, and PTH administration rapidly elevated Pit1 expression and enhanced osteocytic death, indicating the possibility that the highly concentrated serum PTH and Pi cause severe perilacunar osteolysis and osteocytic cell death. It is likely therefore that evocalcet not only decreases serum PTH but also reduces the exacerbation combined with PTH and Pi to the demineralization of osteocytic lacunae and osteocytic cell death, thereby protecting cortical porosity in CKD-SHPT rats.

Effect of local injection of injectable platelet-rich fibrin on eruption rate of teeth (Rabbit animal model)

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the local injection of injectable platelet-rich fibrin (i-PRF) on the eruption rate of the teeth and evaluation of the effect of i-PRF on the number of odontoblast, cementoblast, osteoblast, osteocyte, and osteoclast cells.The samples consisted of 20 male albino rabbits and were divided randomly into the control group (5 rabbits) and i-PRF groups (15 rabbits) sub-divided into week 1, week 2, and week 3 sub-groups. The labial surface of lower right incisors was marked by drilling a hole at the level of the free gingival margin in the mid-line of each tooth with a small round bur, and the eruption rates were measured by measuring the distance from the most apical point of the free gingival margin and the center of the hole with a digital caliper. i-PRF was prepared by centrifuging autologous blood of each rabbit at 1000 rpm for 5 minutes; then the i-PRF layer was collected. The control group received no treatment, whereas i-PRF groups received i-PRF in the following manner: For week 1 groups, a single dose was given at 0 day; for week 2 groups, double doses were given at 0 and 7 days; and for week 3 groups, three doses were given at 0, 7, and 14 days. At the end of experiments for each group, animal scarification was performed, and histological steps were performed.There was a significant increase in the rate of tooth eruption in i-PRF groups when compared to the control group, and the eruption rate was increased in 107.3%, 144.7%, and 167.5% for week 1, week 2, and week 3, respectively. Concerning the histological finding, the i-PRF groups gave rise to a higher number of odontoblast, cementoblast, osteoblast, osteocyte, and osteoclast cells with a significant difference when compared to the control groups (P ≤ 0.05).Applying i-PRF significantly increased the rate of teeth eruption at all-time intervals. Platelet-rich fibrin injection can be an effective method for acceleration of teeth eruption.

THE ROLE OF PPARδ-DRIVEN β-OXIDATION IN BONE HEALTH DURING AGING

Abstract Musculoskeletal disorders are a significant complication of aging, leading to increased morbidity and mortality. However, current understanding of the mechanisms by which aging affects skeletal health is limited. Osteocytes are the most numerous and long-lived bone cells and play key roles in maintaining bone mass by responding to anabolic signals such as mechanical loading. Energy metabolism is dysregulated in many cells with aging, however regulation of energy metabolism in osteocytes and how this is affected during aging and by mechanical loading remains undefined. To investigate this, we first used IDG-SW3 osteocyte cells to determine the effects of mechanical loading on osteocytes in vitro by applying fluid flow shear stress (FFSS). FFSS increased Pparδ and Cpt1 expression, key promoters of fatty acid β-oxidation (FAO). Pharmacological antagonism of PPARδ or CPT1 resulted in dysregulated expression of key bone remodeling genes and impaired ATP release in response to FFSS. In vivo, mechanical loading significantly increased FAO in tibia cortical bone. However, FAO was impaired in the bones from aged mice. To further elucidate the role of osteocyte FAO, we deleted PPARδ specifically in osteocytes (PPARδ cKO), which resulted in decreased FAO and bone volume in female PPARδ cKO mice. Lastly, treatment of aging mice with the PPARδ activator GW0742 resulted in significantly increased bone mineral content, density and trabecular bone volume. These findings suggest important functions of osteocyte energy metabolism during aging and with mechanical loading on bone and identify PPARδ-driven FAO as a novel therapeutic target for improving skeletal health with aging.