OSPAR Convention Research Articles

Numerical Analysis for Cutting a Subsea Bundle

Abstract The decommissioning of subsea bundles presents a significant challenge to the industry. Bundles are unique to the North Sea with more than 70 bundles currently in use with diameters reaching 1400 mm. The 1992 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic, which is the international treaty governing offshore decommissioning in the North East Atlantic, presumes that all installations will be removed and the London Convention prohibits dumping at sea so the decommissioning of subsea bundles is a legal requirement. This study identifies that cutting and lifting subsea bundles is the best option for decommissioning bundles and is the first use of finite element analysis to design such a tool to cut bundles and determine the forces required. This modeling of the hydraulic shear indicates that the required shearing force is 18.65 MN when using a blade with a 60-deg cutting angle and a 180-deg shape angle. The modeling further demonstrates that the shearing force varies with the cutting and shape angles. On the other hand, the modeling for the guillotine cutter indicates a required shearing force of 19 MN. This analysis demonstrates the parameters required to design a subsea bundle-cutting tool and is the first step toward developing a practical tool for decommissioning subsea bundles.

Main current legal and regulatory frameworks for carbon dioxide capture, transport, and storage in the European Economic Area

There is broad consensus on the key role that carbon dioxide (CO2) capture, transport, and storage (CCTS) systems will play in mitigating climate change, either by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently or by avoiding CO2 emissions generated by point sources, especially from hard-to-abate sectors (e.g., waste-to-energy, cement, shipping or aviation). Although CCTS is ready to be implemented from a technical standpoint, the legal and regulatory framework required for its implementation and regulation could be further improved. In this article, we summarize and critically discuss the provisions of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (the ‘OSPAR Convention’), and of the London protocol, as well as of the European CCS and ETS Directives. With a focus on the European Economic Area, we highlight existing gaps and hurdles that should be tackled in view of the large-scale deployment of CCTS. Furthermore, as the legal landscape for CO2 transport and geological storage is evolving rapidly, we provide an overview of recent clarifications on aspects of the existing legislation and a summary of new proposals presented by the European Commission in this space.

Compiling preliminary SEEA Ecosystem Accounts for the OSPAR regional sea: experimental findings and lessons learned

Ecosystem Accounting provides a framework to measure and value relationships amongst ecosystems, society and the economy. The accounts measure ecosystem extent, condition and services, providing the means to identify and internalise ecological degradation, as well as understanding the risks and dependencies of economic activities on the environment and tracking progress towards sustainable development. The OSPAR Convention, which concerns the protection of the Marine Environment for the North-East Atlantic, has committed to accounting for natural capital and ecosystem services, where the UN System of Environmental Economic Accounting – Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) provides an international accounting standard for guidance in compiling accounts. Here, we describe the first attempt in compiling accounts aligned with SEEA EA at a Regional Sea scale. We: (i) identified existing open access data, (ii) produced accounts for selected ecosystems and valued their services and asset value and (iii) identified challenges and lessons learned. For ecosystem services, we measured fish provisioning, carbon sequestration and outdoor recreation from coastal and marine environments across OSPAR contracting parties. The exercise identified lack of fitting data at regional level, spatially-explicit linkages and harmonisation need to be overcome to further expand accounts. This work represents an initial step to progress on ecosystem accounting and demonstrates that even with limited data and incomplete time-series, accounts can start being compiled to identify data gaps and prioritising next steps.

From Undermining to Strengthening:

Abstract Among the most pressing issues that remain unresolved in the process of negotiating a new international legally binding instrument (ILBI) on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ) are the institutional arrangements, as they underpin the treaty as a whole. This article seeks to shed new light on the question of what institutional shape the ILBI should take, by closely analysing the pluralistic governance model that is reflected in the BBNJ Draft text and exploring its potential normative and institutional interactions with the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention), under which a vast network of marine protected areas (MPAs) has been put in place. The BBNJ ILBI has great potential to strengthen regional bodies in their endeavours to establish MPAs as opposed to ‘undermine’ them.

The concentration and biomagnification of PCBs and PBDEs across four trophic levels in a marine food web

Contracting Parties to the OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Maine Environment of the North-East Atlantic are required to undertake monitoring and assessment of both inorganic and organic contaminants. There is a requirement to assess contaminants across different trophic levels on an ecosystem-specific basis. However, this is currently constrained by the availability of relevant samples to cover the full range of trophic levels. This study investigates the variability (inter- and intra-species variation) of the concentrations and distributions of thirty-two polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners and nine polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners in twenty-six species covering four trophic levels from different geographic locations around Scotland. Trophic magnification factors (TMFs) were calculated using a traditional method and a balanced method for both the ICES-7 PCBs and BDE47, to refine and improve the application of TMFs to assess and predict biomagnification risk to biota in the marine environment. There were clear differences in congener percentage distribution between sample categories and species, with differences influenced by physiological processes and eco-biological parameters. Trophic magnification was found to occur for the ICES-7 PCBs and BDE47 using the traditional method, with the highest degree of trophic magnification reported for CB52. An unbalanced dataset was found to influence the calculated TMF and in some cases, the overall conclusion of the trophic transfer of PCB and PBDE congeners. The balanced method is highly recommended for calculating TMFs to ensure that the TMF is a true indication of the biomagnification potential, particularly when conducting regional comparisons for which sampling requirements are difficult to achieve.

Turning the tide on protection illusions: The underprotected MPAs of the ‘OSPAR Regional Sea Convention’

Contracting Parties of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (the ‘OSPAR Convention’) have agreed to establish an effective network of marine protected areas (MPAs). While the network is currently covering approximately 7% of the North-East Atlantic, the extent to which existing MPAs appropriately harbour protection remains unknown. Using the regulation-based classification system, we assessed the levels of protection of 946 zones belonging to 476 strictly marine OSPAR MPAs. We show that only 0.03% of the OSPAR MPA network is covered with full or high protection levels, which are the protection levels exhibiting significant conservation benefits. According to this study, more than 60% of MPAs are unprotected, leading to uncertainties about their potential to deliver positive conservation outcomes. MPA coverage alone should not be used as an indicator for MPA performance, but when presented with the actual protection levels, a light can be shed on MPA quality. To be able to reach the 2030 ocean targets agreed under the European Biodiversity Strategy, to which most OSPAR Contracting Parties are committed, substantial efforts are required not only to strategically enlarge the MPA network coverage to 30% but mostly to reach the EU sub-target of 10% of strict protection. Enhancing effective protection by increasing the coverage of fully and highly protected areas to safeguard marine ecosystems is urgently needed to sustainably support human well-being.

Genetic Connectivity and Diversity of a Protected, Habitat-Forming Species: Evidence Demonstrating the Need for Wider Environmental Protection and Integration of the Marine Protected Area Network

Modiolus modiolus (horse mussel) reefs are an example of marine biodiversity hotspots of high conservation importance. Due to historical destruction and slow rates of recovery, the habitat is considered threatened and/or declining under the OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic 1992, and therefore incorporated into the conservation legislation of several countries. An analysis of genetic connectivity and diversity of nine M. modiolus reefs across Scotland, both within and outside of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), was undertaken using 12 newly developed microsatellite markers. Analyses indicated moderate to high levels of genetic connectivity between all populations and significantly low genetic variance among populations. Generally, a lack of spatial genetic structure was determined though several populations were highlighted as potentially genetically separated. Structure and connectivity results were largely corroborated by network visualization which additionally identified several potentially key populations. All populations showed departure from Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) and positive inbreeding coefficients, suggesting reduced genetic diversity and/or reflecting the high frequency of null alleles observed across populations. However, allelic richness was uniformly high across all reefs compared to previously reported results for the habitat. Results broadly suggest that an open system of M. modiolus populations exists in Scottish waters and align with conclusions from prior larval dispersal modeling. Findings highlight that neither M. modiolus populations nor the MPAs where they are found should be considered discrete, independent entities and support the protection of features within MPAs in concert with non-designated areas and across varying spatial scales. It is proposed that potential for greater protection exists if all relevant Scottish MPAs, i.e., both those where M. modiolus reefs are a designated feature and those that host M. modiolus reefs, had statutory restrictions on all activities that cause damage to the sea bed. Such protection may facilitate the support of vulnerable populations by more resilient populations, particularly under climate change. Furthermore, given that a large number of unprotected M. modiolus populations may be important components in the interdependent system of reef populations, supplementary genetics studies informed by larval dispersal modeling are recommended to identify further key populations for safeguarding.

A feeding guild indicator to assess environmental change impacts on marine ecosystem structure and functioning

Abstract Integrating food web indicators into ecological status assessments is central to developing effective management measures that can improve degraded ecosystems. This is because they can reveal how ecosystems respond to environmental change that cannot be inferred from studying habitat, species or assemblages alone. However, the substantial investment required to monitor food webs (e.g. via stomach contents analysis) and the lack of internationally agreed approaches to assessing them has hampered their development. Inventories of trophic interactions have been collated world‐wide and across biomes, and can be applied to infer food web structure and energy flow. Here, we compile a new marine dataset containing 8,092 unique predator–prey interactions from 415,294 fish stomachs. We demonstrate how feeding guilds (i.e. groupings based on diet and life stage) could be defined systematically and in a way that is conducive to their application internationally across ecosystems; and apply them to the North Sea fish assemblage to demonstrate their responsiveness to anthropogenic pressures. We found evidence for seven distinct feeding guilds. Differences between guilds were related to predator size, which positively correlated with piscivory, phylogeny, with multiple size classes of a species often in the same guild, and habitat, as pelagic, benthic and shallow‐coastal foraging was apparent. Guild biomasses were largely consistent through time at the North Sea‐level and spatially aggregated at the regional level with change relating to changes in resource availability, temperature, fishing and the biomass of other guilds. This suggests that fish biomass was partitioned across broad feeding and environmental niches, and changes over time were governed partly by guild carrying capacities, but also by a combination of covariates with contrasting patterns of change. Management of the North Sea ecosystem could therefore be adaptive and focused towards specific guilds and pressures in a given area. Synthesis and applications. We propose a food web indicator which has been explicitly called for to inform policy via food web status assessment as part of the European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the indicator toolkit supporting The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North‐East Atlantic (the ‘OSPAR Convention’).

Impulsive noise pollution in the Northeast Atlantic: Reported activity during 2015–2017

Underwater noise pollution from impulsive sources (e.g. explosions, seismic airguns, percussive pile driving) can affect marine fauna through mortality, physical injury, auditory damage, physiological stress, acoustic masking, and behavioural responses. Given the potential for large-scale impact on marine ecosystems, some countries are now monitoring impulsive noise activity, coordinated internationally through Regional Seas Conventions. Here, we assess impulsive noise activity in the Northeast Atlantic reported during 2015–2017 to the first international impulsive noise register (INR), established in 2016 under the OSPAR Convention. Seismic airgun surveys were the dominant noise source (67%-83% of annual activity) and declined by 38% during 2015–2017. Reported pile driving activity increased 46%. Explosions and sonar/acoustic deterrent devices both had overall increases in reported activity. Some increases were attributable to more comprehensive reporting in later years. We discuss utilising the INR for risk assessment, target setting, and forward planning, and the implementation of similar systems in other regions.

Discovery of Sabellaria spinulosa reefs in an intensively fished area of the Dutch Continental Shelf, North Sea

The tube-building polychaete Sabellaria spinulosa (Ross worm) can form conspicuous biogenic reefs that stabilize the seabed and increase biodiversity by providing a habitat for a multitude of other species. These reefs, however, are assumed to be vulnerable to human-induced physical disturbances of the seabed. In the Greater North Sea, S. spinulosa reefs are recognized to be under threat and worthy of protection. In August 2017, three S. spinulosa reefs with a minimum extent of 1016 m2 were discovered in the Dutch Brown Bank area. This area comprises a large-scale sandbank and adjacent troughs. The reefs were found within the sandbank troughs, which have proven to be subject to high demersal fishing intensities (fished >5 times a year). Detailed bathymetry measurements showed that S. spinulosa reefs were mainly located within valleys of smaller-scaled sand waves, which have a perpendicular orientation compared to the large-scale sandbank structure of the Brown Bank. We hypothesize that the valleys in between sand waves offer suitable substrate for settlement and refuge from abrasion by fishing activities, enabling the S. spinulosa reefs to persist despite high fishing intensities. ROV footage of the reefs showed higher estimates of species abundances on the reefs compared with adjacent habitats, with some species present that are typical for hard substrate (rock gunnel, Pholis gunnellus; edible crab, Cancer pagurus; and velvet swimming crab, Necora puber). The information presented could be used for drafting management policies to protect these reefs, as Contracting Parties of the OSPAR Convention are committed to take measures and protect biodiversity.

Implementation challenges of area-based management tools (ABMTs) for biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ)

Area-based management tools (ABMTs), including marine protected areas (MPAs) are widely recognized as a key mechanism for conserving and restoring biodiversity. The developing international legally-binding instrument (ILBI) on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ) is considering a range of approaches to ABMTs. While the process is still in early stages, this paper looks ahead to anticipate implementation challenges for ABMTs, given previous experiences with regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) and high seas MPAs. Drawing on the implementation of MPAs under the OSPAR Convention and the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Living Marine Resources (CCAMLR), key suggestions revolve around: (1) improving the evidence basis for protecting BBNJ, (2) designing effective compliance and enforcement mechanisms, and (3) engaging adequately with relevant stakeholders. In addition to the case studies, which are primarily marine pollution and fishing-oriented, considerations related to mitigating the effects of deep sea mining and the harvesting of marine genetic resources are also touched upon.

A Study on the Marine Protected Areas beyond National Jurisdiction - Some Considerations under the OSPAR Convention -

A Study on the Marine Protected Areas beyond National Jurisdiction - Some Considerations under the OSPAR Convention -

The importance of population density and inter-individual distance in conserving the European oysterOstrea edulis

Fertilization success will determine the rate at which a population can expand and is especially important when considering small, establishing or enduring communities. Introduced species frequently fail to establish reproductively functional populations due to strong Allee effects associated with low densities. The native European oyster,Ostrea edulisbroods its fertilized eggs in the pallial cavity for a period of 8–10 days before releasing the larvae. It is considered a partial broadcast spawner and was used as a model species to assess the importance of Allee effects such as inter-individual distance on reproductive success. Distances between individual oysters within test plots in areas of known oyster density were used in conjunction with standardized brood size (n larvae g−1total wet weight) to assess fertilization success. A significant, positive relationship was observed between brood size and oyster density. Oysters with a nearest neighbour ≤1.5 m were found to brood significantly more larvae than individuals with nearest neighbours ≥1.5 m. Therefore, high density sites need to be maintained to ensure the recovery and enhancement of this OSPAR Convention recognized species in decline.

Международно-правовой режим искусственных островов и иных стационарных конструкций в море

Introduction. The 1969 Report of the UN General Secretary noted that 125 fixed platforms were used in offshore areas for the purpose of oil industry. “The International Law of the Sea” (Vol. 1 and 2) published in UK in 1994 provides that “approximately 6000 fixed platforms have been installed in offshore areas throughout the world”. In 2014 only in the area of the OSPAR Convention, 1992, more than 1300 offshore constructions were installed. As for January 2018, the majority of these constructions are in the North Sea (184), the Gulf of Mexico (175), the Persian Gulf (159), and offshore of Far East Asia (152) and Southeast Asia (152). In the other regions this number varies from 3 to 88, while the Canadian Arctic has the smallest number of offshore constructions limited to just 1 object. Accordingly, the issues of interpretation of UNCLOS articles on legal regime of artificial islands and other fixed structures at sea are becoming more pressing. Moreover, the interstate relations, regarding construction of artificial islands in offshore areas, need relevant legal framework to be in place, taking into account the constant growth of economic and military “competition” among countries, as well as the development of science and technologies applicable to offshore construction. Materials and methods . This paper dwells upon the international treaties and other legal instruments, which rely upon the terms “artificial islands”, “installations”, “structures” at sea for regulating relations among States and between States and other international law subjects. The materials for this paper are also commentaries of the UNCLOS, interpretation of the relevant articles of 1958 Geneva maritime conventions, applicable resolutions of the International Maritime Organization, and also definitions of the conventional terms suggested by scholars. The methodological basis of the research consists of general scientific and specific methods, including comparative method. Research results . Most specialists in the law of the sea who research similar topics dwell upon their personal definitions of the conventional terms mentioned above. Such specialists correctly note that the absence of such definitions in UNCLOS makes it difficult to interpret and apply relevant articles in a proper way. Meanwhile, the necessity for such interpretation and application is of practical value because such terms of UNCLOS relate firstly to relevant rights and jurisdiction of coastal and other States in maritime areas where artificial islands, installations and structures are used, including the territorial sea, the EEZ and the continental shelf. Nevertheless lots of different definitions of such terms suggested by scholars make it even more difficult to interpret and apply the rules of UNCLOS on artificial islands, installations and structures, including such sensitive areas of interstate relations as safety at sea and protection of the marine environment. Discussion and conclusions . The authors of this paper do not support any classification or definition of “artificial islands”, “installations” or “structures” or any other definition of other specific words used in UNCLOS for such terms. Instead the authors bring arguments to legal delineation of artificial islands from any other permanent structure at sea independently of the fact which particular word is used in UNCLOS for describing such a structure in a relevant article (“installations”, “structures”, “devices”, “equipment” etc.). It is argued in this paper that such legal delineation is caused by a difficult and comprehensive balance of interests achieved during the III Conference on the Law of the Sea, and such interests relating to economic, military, environmental interests of States, coastal and non-coastal, firstly in the EEZ and on the continental shelf.

MPAs in ABNJ: lessons from two high seas regimes

AbstractEstablishing a network of marine-protected areas (MPAs) in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) is viewed as an important measure to protect marine biodiversity. To date 12 MPAs have been established: two in the Southern Ocean and 10 in the North-East Atlantic region, and more are proposed. The Southern Ocean MPAs were adopted by Members of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) in a complex, slow and challenging process. The North-East Atlantic MPAs were established under the OSPAR Convention and although the MPA network was established swiftly, doubts remain about whether it was a successful institutional development for the protection of marine biodiversity or just a network of ‘paper parks’. This article analyses the planning and negotiation processes that took place in establishing the 12 current MPAs to identify lessons useful for establishing MPAs in ABNJ in the future.

A new classification scheme of European cold-water coral habitats: Implications for ecosystem-based management of the deep sea

Cold-water corals (CWC) can form complex structures which provide refuge, nursery grounds and physical support for a diversity of other living organisms. However, irrespectively from such ecological significance, CWCs are still vulnerable to human pressures such as fishing, pollution, ocean acidification and global warmingProviding coherent and representative conservation of vulnerable marine ecosystems including CWCs is one of the aims of the Marine Protected Areas networks being implemented across European seas and oceans under the EC Habitats Directive, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the OSPAR Convention. In order to adequately represent ecosystem diversity, these initiatives require a standardised habitat classification that organises the variety of biological assemblages and provides consistent and functional criteria to map them across European Seas. One such classification system, EUNIS, enables a broad level classification of the deep sea based on abiotic and geomorphological features. More detailed lower biotope-related levels are currently under-developed, particularly with regards to deep-water habitats (>200m depth).This paper proposes a hierarchical CWC biotope classification scheme that could be incorporated by existing classification schemes such as EUNIS. The scheme was developed within the EU FP7 project CoralFISH to capture the variability of CWC habitats identified using a wealth of seafloor imagery datasets from across the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean. Depending on the resolution of the imagery being interpreted, this hierarchical scheme allows data to be recorded from broad CWC biotope categories down to detailed taxonomy-based levels, thereby providing a flexible yet valuable information level for management. The CWC biotope classification scheme identifies 81 biotopes and highlights the limitations of the classification framework and guidance provided by EUNIS, the EC Habitats Directive, OSPAR and FAO; which largely underrepresent CWC habitats.

Managing dredged material in the coastal zone of the Baltic Sea

This article deals with the legal and practical recommendations for the management of dredged material in the riparian countries of the Baltic Sea. The recommendations are contained in three conventions: LC, 2000. London Convention (1972), Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea area (Helsinki Convention) (1992), the OSPAR Convention (1972). Different approaches to evaluating the contamination level of dredge spoils, used by the Baltic Sea riparian countries, have been characterized. The differences in those approaches manifest themselves by various concentration limits for contaminants, which form a basis for the classification of dredged material as either contaminated or non-contaminated, and thus determine how the spoils will be processed further. Based on the collected information about the concentration limits for contaminants of surface sediments in the coastal ports, it was pointed out that it is necessary to conduct routine monitoring of heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, tributyltin, and petroleum hydrocarbons in dredged sediments in all the Baltic Sea states. On the other hand, the monitoring of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans, organochlorine, and organophosphoric pesticides is only needed in locations that are suspected of historical or being the local contamination sources. Due to significant economic limitations of chemical determinations, it is important to consider a simple screening test of sediment that would say whether sediment may be "contaminated" and qualifies for more detailed and costly chemical research. It may be typical basic physical-chemical analysis of sediments or ecotoxicological classification of sediments.Despite environmentally friendly tendencies, the practical application of dredged material within the Baltic Sea area is very limited. Dredged material is most frequently stored at the specifically designated sites. From among the practical uses of dredge spoils, beach nourishment is of the highest significance.In the conclusion, the new proposed management procedure of dredged material was presented.

Bi-species imposex monitoring in Galicia (NW Spain) shows contrasting achievement of the OSPAR Ecological Quality Objective for TBT

Imposex is decreasing worldwide after the total ban on tributyltin (TBT) from antifouling paints. In order to assess improvement in the NE Atlantic, the OSPAR Convention designed an Ecological Quality Objective (EcoQO) based on the VDSI (vas deferens sequence index, an agreed measure of imposex) in the rock snail Nucella lapillus; wherever this is not available, the mud snail Nassarius reticulatus was proposed as a proxy. We determined VDSI in Galician populations of rock (n≥34) and mud (n≥18) snails at regular intervals from pre-ban times until 2009 and 2011, respectively. While imposex in the former started decreasing in 2006 and by 2009 the EcoQO had been met in the area, VDSI in the latter was not significantly reduced until 2011 and values contradict such an achievement. This suggests that the OSPAR imposex bi-species scheme may not be of direct application in the current post-ban scenario.

Patterns in megabenthic assemblages on a seamount summit (Ormonde Peak, Gorringe Bank, Northeast Atlantic)

AbstractGettysburg and Ormonde are two shallow peaks located on the Gorringe seamount about 200 and 240 km WSW off Cape St. Vincent (Portugal, NE Atlantic), within the Portuguese Economic Exclusive Zone. Despite the ecological importance of the biological assemblages on these peaks and the need to preserve seamounts as valuable habitats, no management plans have been yet implemented at this site, which only recently has been included in the list of Sites of Community Importance of Portugal. Video imagery collected using a ROV during the 2011 Oceana campaigns was used here to analyse qualitative and quantitative patterns of benthic assemblage composition at the summit of the seamount (between 30 and 230 m depth). The results suggest that Ormonde is a biologically important area made up of vulnerable marine ecosystem elements that change significantly with depth. These include: kelp beds, in the euphotic zone; encrusting coralline algal communities and solitary colonies or mixed associations of suspension‐feeders (scleractinians, gorgonians, antipatharians, encrusting demosponges and ascidians), at the lower limit of the euphotic zone; mixed coral gardens and erect sponges, in the disphotic zone; and dense sponge aggregations, on the upper slope. These results were further used to propose amendments to the European Nature Information System habitat classification as a tool to work towards resolving the seamounts management issue. The results also provide information on taxa and habitats with high ecological value and classified as threatened or vulnerable, which is essential for the implementation of the cornerstones of Europe's biodiversity conservation policy, namely the OSPAR Convention and the EU Habitats Directive.

Coastal defences versus coastal ecosystems: A regional appraisal

Societal concern (both real and imagined) over coastal erosion and flooding, often results in construction of sea defences to protect property. Sea defences are, however, damaging to the natural ecosystems that provide quantifiable ecosystem services to the human population. Protection of property is, however, the most common driving force behind construction of sea defences and the basis of any associated economic appraisals. Protection of the coastal ecosystem (sedimentary, biological and chemical) while commonly implied in strategic documents (e.g. Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC, Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC, OSPAR Convention), remain largely aspirational notions that currently have a much lower priority, or none at all, in sea defence decision-making. Under this anthropic view of coastal protection it is not surprising that defence structures proliferate. In many instances, shoreline armouring is considered on a case by case basis with little regard to the cumulative effects. This is true whether or not there is a strategic approach to coastal protection. In this paper the Northern Ireland coast is used as a case study to document the nature and extent of shoreline protection structures associated with sandy beaches. The nature and extent of sea defence structures were documented from a low-level oblique helicopter-based photographic survey and mapped in a GIS. The implications for the coastal ecosystem are considered. A sustainable approach to shoreline management demands a balance between protection of property and preservation of coastal ecosystem services.