Tiber Research Articles

Synergistic efficacy unleashed: Co/Ni-based catalysts as a versatile powerhouse for photocatalytic degradation of ornidazole

Preserving the environment, ensuring civilian safety and safeguarding human health demand the targeted and precise decomposition of harmful wastewater components. In recent decades, coordination polymers (CPs) have proven effective as photocatalysts for detecting and breaking down antibiotics, offering a promising solution to this pressing issue. Three new stable CPs of [Co(HL)(1,4-bib)·H2O]n (1), [Co(HL)(4,4-bib)]n (2) and [Ni(HL)(4,4-bib)]n (3), were synthesized under hydrothermal conditions using the main ligand 4′-(3,4-dicarboxylphenyloxy)-4-biphenylcarboxylic acid (H3L), 4-bis(1-imidazoly)benzene (1,4-bib) and 4,4′-bis(imidazolyl)biphenyl (4,4-bib) as a spacer. Characterization via various spectral techniques and single crystal X-ray studies confirmed their structures. Furthermore, the CPs 1–3 demonstrated efficacy as catalysts for the degradation of the antibiotic ornidazole (ODZ) in an aqueous medium, with catalyst (3) exhibiting notably high selectivity and efficiency compared to the other two CPs.

Effect of irradiated nonionic surfactant on drug-protein binding

In this work, the effect of γ-irradiated surfactants on drug–protein binding has been assessed. Irradiated aqueous solutions of Pluronic F-127, Pluronic L-35, Tween 20, and Tween 80 surfactants were used. Gamma irradiation was carried out for three different doses, to these four surfactants viz., 6, 30, and 36 kGy. Two drugs, Ornidazole (ONZ) and Telmisartan (TMS) were used for the binding study. The effect of four irradiated surfactants in the presence of drug – Bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein was analyzed. The drug solutions in methanol-aqueous media were combined with BSA in the initial step. In the next two succeeding steps, drug–BSA interaction in the presence of unirradiated and irradiated surfactants were carried out. The results of drug-BSA due to addition of irradiated and unirradiated surfactants were compared. The interaction processes were assessed through UV Spectroscopy, DLS, zeta potential, turbidity, and docking studies. Improved binding was observed for both the drugs and four surfactants for irradiated surfactants as determined from the binding constant values using UV spectroscopic studies. The DLS measurements demonstrated no general trend of increase or decrease in micellar size with absorbed dose. The binding and change in the size of micelles were observed to be highly drug and surfactant-specific. Among the four surfactants, irradiated Pluronic F-127 showed higher binding affinity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the effect of γ-irradiated surfactant on drug–BSA interaction. This can be applied to other drug–protein systems to tune their interaction to the required level. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma

Effects of a beaver dam on the benthic copepod assemblage of a Mediterranean river

As known “ecosystem engineers”, beavers influence river hydrology, geomorphology, biochemistry, and biological assemblages. However, there is a lack of research regarding the effects of beaver activities on freshwater meiofauna. In this study, we investigated the taxonomic and functional composition of the benthic copepod assemblage of a segment of the Tiber River (Italy) where a beaver dam, created about 7 weeks before our survey, had formed a semi-lentic habitat upstream and a lotic habitat downstream of the dam. We also analyzed the copepod assemblage before and after a flood event that destroyed the beaver dam, providing a unique opportunity to observe changes in a naturally reversing scenario. Our analyses revealed that, while the taxonomic composition and functional traits of the copepod assemblage remained largely unchanged across the recently formed semi-lentic and lotic habitats, substantial differences were evident between the dammed and undammed states. The dammed state showed lower copepod abundances, biomass, and functionality than the undammed one. These results highlight the role of beaver dams in changing the composition and functionality of meiofaunal assemblages offering insights into the dynamic interactions within aquatic ecosystems.

Green Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Lignin Extracted from Phoenix Dactylifera Seed: Application as Electrochemical Sensor for the Monitoring of Ornidazole

Abstract Lignin is the second most common biopolymer after cellulose and the most-available renewable source of aromatic groups in nature. The alkaline method was used to extract lignin from Phoenix dactylifera seeds powder. The current research aims to use extracted lignin as a reducing and stabilizing agent for ecofriendly manufacturing of silver nanoparticles (Lig-AgNPs). The prepared Lig-AgNPs were characterized by UV-Vis, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis techniques. Moreover, they were further used to modify the surface of a carbon paste electrode (CPE), and the resulting modified electrode (Lig-AgNPs/CPE) was applied for electrochemical detection of ornidazole (ODZ) according to optimum square wave voltammetry conditions. The prepared sensor Lig-AgNPs/CPE was able to identify ODZ (at BR buffer pH 2.3) in a linear range between 8.0×10-6 and 1.0×10-3 M, with DL of 0.362 µM and QL equal 1.21 μM, the acquired RSD was 3%. Additionally, the developed electrode Lig-AgNPs/CPE was successfully applied to detect ODZ in commercial milk, river water, and tap water with agreeable results.

Validation of HPLC-DAD Based Stability Indicating Assay Method for Ornidazole in Periodontal Polymeric Hydrogel: Robustness Study using Quality by Design (QbD) Approach

In the present study, a gradient reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) method has been designed and validated to quantify Ornidazole (OZ) in the marketed formulation (oral gel) with the application of QbD. The proposed HPLC method utilizes an RP C18 column (4.6 x 250 mm, 5 μm). The mobile phase contained HPLC grade Solvent A (water) and Solvent B (acetonitrile) and ran at a flow rate of 1 mL/min in a gradient mode. The linearity was plotted in an OZ range of 1–12 μg/mL and the correlation coefficient was found to be 0.9998. The limit of quantification, as well as the limit of detection, has been recorded as 0.70 μg/mL and 0.23 μg/mL. Inter- and intra-day precision (RSD) percentages were reported respectively within a range of 0.262–0.589 and 0.179–0.879. At 80, 100, and 120 percent different OZ levels, the average accuracy was 99.55, 99.58, and 99.92, respectively. The result of the study indicates that the OZ gel estimate HPLC method has good sensitivity, reproducibility, accuracy, and precision. This method may be used for the estimation of OZ in a gel formulation in quality control laboratories.

Pachamama Christianity: The Pan-Amazonian Synod and Indigenous Religious Identity

In the early hours of the morning of October 21, 2019, two right-wing Catholic men broke into the church of Santa Maria in Traspontina, Rome. They stole four carved wooden statues of a naked pregnant woman that had been on display and used in a papal ceremony during the Pan-Amazonian Synod that was nearing its conclusion and threw them into the Tiber River. What was the meaning of these statues and the ceremony in the presence of the pope in which they appeared? Was this an example of syncretism, of dual religious belonging, or an exercise in what Pope Francis called “daring prudence” in terms of inculturation of the gospel? This article, the 2022 Louis J. Luzbetak Lecture at Catholic Theological Union, takes the incident of the theft of the statues and the controversy that followed as an opportunity to propose a more creative and bolder approach to the relationship between mission and culture.

Syntheses and photochemically antibiotic degradation of two Co(II)-based coordination polymers

Two new Co(II)-based coordination polymers (CPs), designated as [Co2(bbp)4(1,3-bdc)4]n(1) and [Co(bbp)3(NO3)2(H2O)]n(2) (bbp = 3,5-bis(benzoimidazo-1-ly) pyridine; 1,3-H2bdc = 1,3-benzenedicarboxy acid), were synthesized using a dual ligand approach. The characterization of these CPs involved single- crystal -XRD, UV–visible, FT-IR, and TGA analysis. Both CPs 1 and 2 exhibit a distorted octahedral geometry. Both 1 and 2 show a 1D ladder chain, and this chain-like structure undergoes further development into a more intricate two-dimensional (2D) supramolecular network. The thermal stability analysis revealed that 1 and 2 are stable at temperatures of 119 °C and 286 °C, respectively, with no significant mass loss. Notably, both CPs displayed semiconducting properties. The photocatalytic degradation capabilities of CPs 1 and 2 were investigated against antibiotics such as metronidazole (MDZ), Tinidazole (TDZ), ornidazole (ODZ), and furazolidone (FZD). CP 1 exhibits exceptional photocatalytic activity against FZD. A dosage of 5 mg/L of CP 1 resulted in a remarkable degradation efficiency of 92.2 % for 40 ppm FZD. Additionally, a proposed photodegradation mechanism was investigated through radical trapping experiments.

Feature importance measures for flood forecasting system design

ABSTRACT Effective proxy selection in hydrological processes is crucial in several applications. This study investigates the role of sub-basins in hydrological response, which remains unclear. Our focus is on exploring feature importance measures to identify influential sub-basins in a flood forecasting system. We use the Tiber River basin as a case study and employ a synthetic flood hydrograph dataset, consisting in approximately 20 000 simulated annual maximum hydrographs across 39 sub-basins and the basin outlet. Through this study, we present a proof of concept for ranking sub-basins based on their contribution to basin response using six feature importance measures. The results reveal eight influential sub-basins and provide guidance for strategically installing measurement instrumentation for an efficient and cost-effective flood early warning system.

Efficient Amperometric Detection of Ornidazole: An Antibiotic Drug Based on Rare-Earth Metal Oxide Entrapped with Graphene Nanosheets Nanocomposite

The use of nitro aromatic compounds for the treatment of protozoal infections as well as anaerobic bacteria is widespread. The global use of antiprotozoal drugs causes significant ecological impact on living systems. In this study, electrochemical detection of the antiprotozoal drug ornidazole (ODZ) was demonstrated through neodymium oxide/graphene nanosheets (Nd2O3/GNS) based electrocatalyst. This hybrid material was prepared with a sonochemical probe method. We characterized the Nd2O3/GNS nanocomposite using various analytical and spectroscopic techniques. For rapid ODZ drug determination, we used Nd2O3/GNS nanocomposite-based slurry to modify the glassy carbon electrode (GCE) surface. The electrocatalysis of ODZ using Nd2O3/GNS/GCE showed a good linear range (0.01–221 μM), excellent detection limit (0.001 μM), and high sensitivity, along with long-term stability. The practicality of the sensor electrode for ODZ was successfully determined in water and human urine samples, yielding satisfactory recoveries. Thus the results indicated that Nd2O3 with conductive carbon support including graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNT), carbon nanofibers, etc., can be used as a sensitive sensor electrode for the real-time detection of antibiotic drugs that cause human and environment by continuous consumption and improper disposal from the pharmaceutical industries, respectively.

Development of a validated bioanalytical method for the simultaneous estimation of ornidazole and miconazole in rat plasma by LC-MS/MS and its application to a pharmacokinetic study

A highly sensitive, accurate, and robust LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of ornidazole (ODZ) and miconazole (MCZ) in rat plasma using metronidazole (MTR) as an internal standard (IS). The analyte and IS were extracted from plasma by precipitating protein with acetonitrile and were chromatographed. The mobile phase was acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid (75:25 v/v). The total run time was 3 min, and the injection volume was 5.0 μL. Multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was used, in which the transitions of m/z 417.10→m/z 160.90 for MCZ, m/z 220.10→m/z 127.90 for ODZ, and m/z 172.10→m/z 128.1 for IS were monitored. The linearity range of MCZ was 0.15 − 250.0 ng/mL and 3.0-250.0 ng/mL for ODZ. The lower limits of quantification (LLOQ) were found to be 0.05 ng/mL for MCZ and 1.0 ng/mL for ODZ in rat plasma. Recoveries of MCZ ranged between 75.33% − 94.25% and ODZ ranged between 75.33% − 95.54%. The quality control sample accuracy and precision (intra-day and inter-day) were −1.25% to 1.68% and 3.01% to 6.44% for MCZ and −1.31% to 1.88% and 3.34% to 6.98% for ODZ, respectively. The analytes and IS were stable during all sample storage and analysis procedures.

Millennium-scale changes in the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation influenced groundwater recharge rates in Italy

Groundwater, essential for water availability, sanitation and achieving Sustainable Development Goals, is shaped by climate dynamics and complex hydrogeological structures. Here, we provide a time-series of groundwater recharge from 801 CE to the present day in the Tiber River Basin, Italy, using historical records and hydrological modelling. Groundwater drought occurred in 36% of Medieval Climatic Anomaly (801-1249) years, 12% of Little Ice Age (1250-1849) years and 26% of Modern Warming Period (1850-2020) years. Importantly, a predominant warm phase of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, aligned with solar maxima, coincided with prolonged dry spells during both the medieval and modern periods, inducing a reduction in recharge rates due to hydrological memory effects. This study enhances understanding of climate-water interactions, offering a comprehensive view of groundwater dynamics in central Mediterranean and highlighting the importance of the past for sustainable future strategies. Leveraging this understanding can address water scarcity and enhance basin resilience.

The effectiveness of multivariate and univariate spectrophotometric techniques for the concurrent estimation of ornidazole and ciprofloxacin HCl in tablet formulation and spiked serum: estimating greenness and whiteness profile

In this manuscript, the effectiveness of multivariate and univariate tools in conjunction with spectrophotometric techniques was evaluated for the concurrent analysis of ciprofloxacin (CI) and ornidazole (OR) in prepared mixtures, tablets, and human serum. The artificial neural network was chosen as the multivariate Technique. Bayesian regularization (trainbr) and Levenberg–Marquardt algorithms (trainlm), were constructed and trained using feed-forward back-propagation learning. The optimal logarithm was determined based on mean recovery, mean square error of prediction (MSEP), relative root mean square error of prediction (RRMSEP), and bias-corrected MSEP (BCMSEP) scores. Trainbr outperformed trainlm, yielding a mean recovery of 100.05% for CI and 99.84% for OR, making it the preferred algorithm. Fourier self-deconvolution and mean-centering transforms were chosen as the univariate Techniques. Fourier self-deconvolution was applied to the zero-order spectra of ciprofloxacin and ornidazole by electing an appropriate full width at half maximum, enhancing peak resolution at 380.1 nm and 314.2 nm for CI and OR, respectively. Mean centering transform was applied to CI and OR ratio spectra to eliminate constant signals, enabling accurate quantification of CI and OR at 272.0 nm and 306.2 nm, respectively. The introduced approaches were optimized and validated for precise CI and OR analysis, with statistical comparison against the HPLC method revealing no notable differences. The sustainability of these approaches was confirmed through the green certificate (modified eco-scale), AGP, and whiteness-evaluation tool, corroborating their ecological viability.

Ornidazole degradation by PMS activated by Co-Zr-TiO2 with abundant oxygen vacancies: Performance, mechanism and degradation pathway

Peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation through free radical and non-free radical synergism is a promising technique for the removal of difficult-to-degrade organic contaminants. Due to the insufficient sites of action or low activation efficiency of existing activation materials, there are still significant hurdles to enhancing the performance of PMS activation for the degradation of organic matter. In this paper, a bimetallic cobalt- and zirconium-doped TiO2 catalyst (Co-Zr-TiO2) with abundant oxygen vacancies was effectively prepared and employed to activate PMS for the removal of ornidazole (ONZ). The degradation rate of ONZ in the Co-Zr-TiO2/PMS system reached 100% within 20 min, and catalytic performance was approximately 49.6, 52.7 and 4.1 times higher than that of TiO2, Zr-TiO2 and Co-TiO2. Furthermore, the Co-Zr-TiO2 catalyst showed strong catalytic activity in aqueous solutions for various pollutants in addition to good adaptability in the pH range of 3–11. The mechanisms for the generation of multi-reactive oxygen species are activation of PMS by surface Co3+/Co2+ to generate free radicals (SO4•- and •OH); bimetallic doping leading to an increase in oxygen vacancies, which generates 1O2; and Zr4+ doping leading to an increase in the specific surface area, which results in the accessible active sites increase. Radical scavenging and EPR experiments confirmed that SO4•- and 1O2 were the main active substances in the Co-Zr-TiO2/PMS system. Finally, HPLC-MS analysis of degradation intermediates provided a possible catalytic degradation pathway for ONZ. The study proposes a strategy for the construction of efficient PMS activation catalysts for environmental cleanup that combines free radicals with non-free radicals.

Ultrasensitive detection of ornidazole–antibiotic drug residues in water using NiMOFs functionalized MWCNT modified electrode

Nitroimidazole-based drugs are widely used as an antibiotic for the treatment of anaerobic bacterial and parasite illnesses. The widespread use of these drugs in animal feed and the consequent environmental pollution have become significant concerns in recent years. Simple, sensitive, and rapid detection of the antibody in various real samples is demanding research interest. Herein, we report a Nickel-metal organic framework functionalized Multiwalled Carbon nanotubes modified glassy carbon electrode (MWCNT@NiMOFs) as an ultrasensitive and rapid voltammetric sensor for the detection of ornidazole (ORDZ) in a neutral pH solution. The MWCNT@NiMOFs were prepared using a microwave-assisted solvothermal technique accompanied by an ultrasonication method. The designed MWCNT@NiMOFs offered a low charge transfer resistance (Rct) of 141 Ω along with excellent electrocatalytic activity, and high current density at the lowered cathodic peak potential (-0.62 V vs Ag/AgCl) for ORDZ detection. The surface adsorption capacity (Γs) in terms of surface excess and heterogeneous charge transfer rate constant (k0) of the MWCNT@NiMOFs were calculated to be 3.29 × 10-9 mol cm−2 and 5.33 × 10-3 cm s−1, respectively. Under an optimal working condition, differential pulse voltammetry measurements of ORDZ have shown concentration linearity in a window, 100 nm to 10 µM range with excellent sensitivity, 5.69 × 10-5A µM−1 cm−2, and detection limit, 26 nM (3.3/s). The designed MWCNT@NiMOFs offered appreciable reproducibility, and repeatability up to 30 days of storage time. The real-time quantitative evaluation of ORDZ in human urine and tap water specimens was done along with ∼ 100 % recovery values. Since the new approach is simple, selective, and separation-free, it can be extendable to a variety of real-time practical applications.

River–coastal–ocean continuum modeling along the Lazio coast (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy): Assessment of near river dynamics in the Tiber delta

The complex processes that occur in river delta areas cannot be fully resolved using traditional structured-mesh models. A seamless unstructured-grid approach could support advances in the estimation and modeling of such dynamics across scales. In this paper, a river–coastal–ocean continuum modeling representation was developed for the Tiber River delta, including surrounding coastal areas and open-ocean zones along the Lazio coast (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy). Using temperature and salinity profiles acquired from historical data of near-river CTD, we demonstrate that this representation reproduces the coastal dynamic processes in the Tiber delta zone better than the classic coastal–ocean representation, minimizing the need for calibration and sensitivity experiments. The model results are compared to a large amount of new observational data (temperature, salinity, and surface currents) obtained specifically to investigate multiple spatial and temporal processes (open-ocean, coastal and near- and along-river). In general, the model shows good overall accuracy, also in reproducing salt wedge intrusion along the southern Tiber branch. Moreover, the results suggest the presence of an anticyclonic gyre in the vicinity of the river mouth of the northern branch that is induced mainly by river discharge and coastal morphology. Owing to its capacity to simulate multi-scale processes in a seamless fashion from the open ocean to the river delta zone, this model can be implemented in the near future within an operational framework to support coastal forecasting activities and deliver useful and reliable ocean information.

Finite mixtures in capture-recapture surveys for modeling residency patterns in marine wildlife populations.

This work aims to show how prior knowledge about the structure of a heterogeneous animal population can be leveraged to improve the abundance estimation from capture-recapture survey data. We combine the Open Jolly-Seber model with finite mixtures and propose a parsimonious specification tailored to the residency patterns of the common bottlenose dolphin. We employ a Bayesian framework for our inference, discussing the appropriate choice of priors to mitigate label-switching and nonidentifiability issues, commonly associated with finite mixture models. We conduct a series of simulation experiments to illustrate the competitive advantage of our proposal over less specific alternatives. The proposed approach is applied to data collected on the common bottlenose dolphin population inhabiting the Tiber River estuary (Mediterranean Sea). Our results provide novel insights into this population's size and structure, shedding light on some of the ecological processes governing itsdynamics.

Selective luminescent detection of 5-nitroimidazole antibiotics through self-aggregates of a single non-aromatic amino acid, L-lysine

This study presents an innovative approach for the detection of 5-nitroimidazole antibiotics, namely ornidazole, secnidazole, metronidazole, and tinidazole. These antibiotics are widely used to treat microbial infections in both humans and livestock industries. Their unregulated use poses environmental and health risks due to their persistence in water bodies and potential to contribute to drug resistance. In response, this research proposes the utilisation of the self-aggregation property of a single unmodified non-aromatic amino acid, L-lysine, for the detection of these antibiotics. Lysine exhibits strong fluorescence in water in a concentration-dependent manner, and the interaction of lysine with 5-nitroimidazole antibiotics resulted in the quenching of its fluorescence. With this technique, we obtained a detection limit of 2.5 μM for metronidazole (MDZ), 2.65 μM for ornidazole (ODZ), 3.13 μM for secnidazole (SDZ), and 2.98 μM for tinidazole (TDZ). This cost-effective approach also offers practicality through visual detection on paper strips as well as successful application in detecting those antibiotics in milk samples and animal products. Taking advantage of the unique properties of lysine and its interaction with antibiotics, this method provides a robust, simplified yet efficient means of detecting 5-nitroimidazole antibiotics, which holds significant potential for real-world implementation.

Compressed-air foundations in Italy: HBIM-aided study of the Tiber River embankments (1876-1900)

Compressed-air foundations in Italy: HBIM-aided study of the Tiber River embankments (1876-1900)

A Europium Metal-Organic Framework and Its Polymer Composite Membrane as Switch-Off Fluorescence Sensors for Antibiotic Detection in Lake Water.

The detection of antibiotic residues is of great significance in monitoring their overuse in healthcare, livestock and poultry farming, and agricultural production. Herein, EuCl3 and 4,4'-dicarboxyl-diphenoxyethene (H2DPOE) ionothermally reacted in 1-methyl-3-butylimidazolium chloride to give a europium metal-organic framework (Eu-DPOE). Eu-DPOE shows different fluorescence quenching rates for sensing eight antibiotics under different excitation wavelengths. Eu-DPOE displays a fast response, high selectivity, and sensitivity in antibiotic detection by fluorescence quenching. Eu-DPOE can sensitively detect TCs (tetracyclines), NOR (norfloxacin), NFT (furazolidone), ODZ (ornidazole), SDZ (sulfadiazine), and CHL (chloramphenicol) with limits of detection below 0.5 μmol/L. It provides a convenient and rapid tool for sensing antibiotics in aqueous solution. The detection mechanism is a competition absorption between DPOE2- and antibiotics with the supports from powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), UV-vis spectra, and fluorescence lifetime. With a composite membrane of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) matrix loading Eu-DPOE (Eu-DPOE@PVDF), Eu-DPOE@PVDF exhibits a visual fluorescence response to NOR under a 254 nm UV lamp and NFT and CTC under 365 nm. Eu-DPOE@PVDF is applied in the quantitative detection of CTC, NOR, and NFT in lake water with recovery rates ranging from 88.37 to 113.8%. Totally, fluorescence-quenched Eu-DPOE@PVDF exhibits a fast response, high selectivity, and sensitivity in sensing CTC, NOR, and NFT.

Kinetic constants and transformation products of ornidazole during ozonation

Ornidazole (ONZ), a nitroimidazole antibiotic detected in water bodies, may negatively impact the aquatic ecosystem. Its reaction kinetics during ozonation which is a feasible and applicable technology to control the contamination of emerging contaminants, however, has not been reported in literature. In this study, we measured the apparent second-order kinetic constant of ONZ with ozone molecules via the excessive ozone method and the competing method which led to an average value of 103.8 ± 2.7 M−1 s−1 at pH 7. The apparent second-order kinetic constant of ONZ with HO• was calculated to be 4.65 × 109 M−1 s−1 with the concept of Rct measured via para-chlorobenzoic acid as a probe. The transformation products (TPs) of ONZ during ozonation at pH 3 and pH 11 were separately analyzed with HPLC-MS/MS and some unique products were found at pH 11, reflecting the influence of HO•. The toxicity of individual TPs was predicted with the tool of T.E.S.T. It was found that 62% of 21 identified TPs could be more toxic than ONZ in terms of at least one acute toxicity endpoint, including chlorinated amines and N-oxides. The analysis with a respirometer further revealed that the toxicity of mixing TPs generated at HO• rich conditions was slightly lower than O3 dominated conditions. In general, this study provides the basic kinetic data for designing ozonation processes to eliminate ONZ and the important reference for understanding the toxicity evolution of ONZ during ozonation.