ORL Face Image Research Articles

An Integration of New Digital Image Scrambling Technique on PCA-Based Face Recognition System

Systems using biometric authentication offer greater security than traditional textual and graphical password-based systems for granting access to information systems. Although biometric-based authentication has its benefits, it can be vulnerable to spoofing attacks. Those vulnerabilities are inherent to any biometric-based subsystem, including face recognition systems. The problem of spoofing attacks on face recognition systems is addressed here by integrating a newly developed image encryption model onto the principal component pipeline. A new model of image encryption is based on a cellular automaton and Gray Code. By encrypting the entire ORL faces dataset, the image encryption model is integrated into the face recognition system’s authentication pipeline. In order for the system to grant authenticity, input face images must be encrypted with the correct key before being classified, since the entire feature database is encrypted with the same key. The face recognition model correctly identified test encrypted faces from an encrypted features database with 92.5% accuracy. A sample of randomly chosen samples from the ORL dataset was used to test the encryption performance. Results showed that encryption and the original ORL faces have different histograms and weak correlations. On the tested encrypted ORL face images, NPCR values exceeded 99%, MAE minimum scores were over (>40), and GDD values exceeded (0.92). Key space is determined byu2sizeA0where A0 represents the original scrambling lattice size, and u is determined by the variables on the encryption key. In addition, a NPCR test was performed between images encrypted with slightly different keys to test key sensitivity. The values of the NPCR were all above 96% in all cases.

Optimization of RBF-SVM hyperparameters using genetic algorithm for face recognit

Manual grid-search tuning of machine learning hyperparameters is very time-consuming. Hence, to curb this problem, we propose the use of a genetic algorithm (GA) for the selection of optimal radial-basis-function based support vector machine (RBF-SVM) hyperparameters; regularization parameter C and cost-factor γ. The resulting optimal parameters were used during the training of face recognition models. To train the models, we independently extracted features from the ORL face image dataset using local binary patterns (handcrafted) and deep learning architectures (pretrained variants of VGGNet). The resulting features were passed as input to either linear-SVM or optimized RBF-SVM. The results show that the models from optimized RBFSVM combined with deep learning or hand-crafted features yielded performances that surpass models obtained from Linear-SVM combined with the aforementioned features in most of the data splits. The study demonstrated that it is profitable to optimize the hyperparameters of an SVM to obtain the best classification performance.
 Keywords: Face Recognition, Feature Extraction, Local Binary Patterns, Transfer Learning, Genetic Algorithm and Support Vector Machines.

Human Face Identification using Moments and Transformations

Face recognition one of the most promising techniques such that the importance of biometric user identification is increasing every day, several methods have been suggested to perform it such as classification, deep learning, statistical, moments, etc., this work describes different approaches to develop biometric technique, based on the moments and transformation. The proposed method for face recognition is based on Legendre moments and singular value decomposition for feature extraction. Local approaches by dividing images into several blocks (overlapped blocks and non-overlapped) have been adopted to gain the best recognition rate, as well as normalization using the Z-score method, which has been used. The outcomes experimental showed that the suggested system is effective, it has been tested using ORL face image databases with 10 cases and achieved a recognition rate from 85.27-100%, also, applied on FEI Brazil face database with 10 cases and achieved a recognition rate from to 79.77-100%.

A Discriminative Projection and Representation-Based Classification Framework for Face Recognition

The sparse representation-based classifier (SRC) has been developed and verified as having great potential for real-world face recognition. In this paper, we propose a discriminative projection and representation-based classification (DPRC) method to enhance the discriminant ability of the SRC. The proposed method first obtains a discriminative projection matrix not only maximizing the ratio of the distance within interclass over the distance within intraclass, but also minimizing the linear approximation error within intraclass. Then it maps the original data onto the discriminative space, and adopts an SRC method to obtain the final solution. An inexact augmented Lagrangian method of multiplier is proposed for finding the optimal representation vector in our framework, and a proximal alternating minimization method is adopted to the iteration subproblems of the proposed method. The proposed method is proven to have the subsequence convergence property. Experimental results on Yale, ORL, and AR face image databases demonstrate that, compared with some existing feature extraction methods based on the SRC, the proposed DPRC method is more efficient.

A New Fast Local Laplacian Completed Local Ternary Count (FLL-CLTC) for Facial Image Classification

Face recognition is one of the most interesting areas of research areas because of its importance in authentication and security. Differentiating between different facial images is not easy because of the similarities in facial features. Human faces can also be covered obscured by eyeglasses, facial expressions and hairstyles can also be changed causing difficulty in finding similar faces. Thus, the need for powerful image features has become a critical issue in the face recognition systems. Many texture features have been used in these systems, including Local Binary Pattern (LBP), Local Ternary Pattern (LTP), Completed Local Binary Pattern (CLBP), Completed Local Binary Count (CLBC) and Completed Local Ternary Pattern (CLTP). In this paper, a new texture descriptor, namely, Completed Local Ternary Count (CLTC), is proposed by adding a threshold value for the CLBC to overcome its sensitivity to noise drawback. The CLTC is also enhanced by adding the Fast-Local Laplacian filter during the pre-processing stage to increase the discriminative property of the proposed descriptor. The proposed Fast-Local Laplacian CLTC (FLL-CLTC) texture descriptor is evaluated for face recognition task using five different face image datasets. The experimental results of the FLL-CLTC showed that the proposed FLL-CLTC outperformed the CLBP and CLTP texture descriptors in term of recognition accuracy. The FLL-CLTC achieved 99.1%, 86.93%, 93.21%, 84.92% and 99.15% with JAFFE, YALE, Georgia Tech, Caltech and ORL face image datasets, respectively.

Local distances preserving based manifold learning

In this paper a local manifold learning method based on the local distances preserving (LDP) is proposed. LDP focuses on extracting and preserving the local distances between the data points. In LDP, the coefficients between each data point and its neighbors are calculated based on the inverse of Euclidean distances between them. Then, a minimization function, which is in accordance with the calculated coefficients, is proposed for calculating the embedded data manifold in the low-dimensional representation space. Matching the way of calculation the coefficients and the proposed minimization function is the main significance of the proposed LDP method. In addition, the proposed LDP method shows less sensitivity to the initial parameters such as the number of neighbors and the value of variance. Also, a stochastic based extension of LDP (SLDP) manifold learning method is proposed. The proposed method is compared with the common manifold learning methods based on the achievable recognition rate and the power of the local distances preserving. The experiments have been done on two different kinds of databases: HODA Persian handwritten character database and ORL face image database. The results demonstrate the suitable performance of LDP and SLDP. Also, the results show the robustness of the proposed method to the number of neighbors and the value of variance parameter. Moreover, the proposed method of calculating the embedded data points in LDP and SLDP has less complexity than the similar local manifold learning methods, Laplacian eigenmaps (LEM) and stochastic LEM (SLEM).

Analysis of Different M-Band Wavelet Filters for Face Recognition using Nearest Neighbor Classifier

<span>Face recognition system is one of the most interesting studied topics in computer vision for past two decades. Among the other popular biometrics such as the retina, fingerprint, and iris recognition systems, the face recognition is capable of recognizing the uncooperative samples in a non-intrusive manner. Also, it can be applied to many applications of surveillance security, forensics, border control, digital entertainment where face recognition is used in most. In the proposed system an automatic face recognition system is discussed. The proposed recognition system is based on the Dual-Tree M-Band Wavelet Transform (DTMBWT) transform algorithm and features obtained by varying the different filter in the DTMBWT transform. Then the different filter features are classified by means of the K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) classifier for recognizing the face correctly. The implementation of the system is done by using the ORL face image database, and the performance metrics are calculated.</span>

Face Recognition Based on Block PCA algorithm and Elman neural network

A method of face image recognition based on Elman neural network and block PCA algorithm is put forward. In this method, the first step is to use block PCA algorithm for the face image processing, and gain the face image features of different block number. These features are the inputs of Elman neural network, the output is the corresponding category. The experiment is based on ORL face images database, the simulation partition of the face images into the different sizes for the testing respectively. Through the above experiment results which show that, face image recognition based on the block PCA algorithm and artificial neural network is effective. The application of block PCA algorithm improves the identification accuracy of face image recognition, and which can be used in the further research.

Multi-Manifold Locality Graph Embedding Based on the Maximum Margin Criterion (MLGE/MMC) for Face Recognition

Solving problems with small sample sizes during training for feature extraction and the dimensionality reduction method will not produce high face recognition accuracy using the locality graph embedding (LGE) algorithm. Thus, we introduced a new algorithm named “multi-manifold locality graph embedding algorithm based on the maximum margin criterion” (MLGE/MMC) by combining the ideas of the maximum margin criterion (MMC) and multiple manifolds. First, each image is divided into multiple small images; this small image configuration constitutes a manifold and multiple images constitute multiple manifolds. Second, through maximizing the inter-class distance, while minimizing the intra-class distance to find the best class projection matrix, we build the multiple manifolds inter-class scatter matrix and the multiple manifolds intra-class scatter matrix, respectively. Finally, the objective function was constructed within the framework of the MMC to find the optimal solution by iteration and the experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm using the ORL, Yale, and AR face image databases.

An Image Retrieval Method Based on Manifold Learning with Scale-Invariant Feature Control

Aiming at the problem of the traditional dimensionality reduction methods cannot recover the inherent structure, and Scale Invariant Feature Transform(SIFT)achieving low precision when reinstating images, an Image Retrieval Method Based on Manifold Learning with Scale-Invariant Feature is proposed. It aims to find low-dimensional compact representations of high-dimensional observation data and explores the inherent low and intrinsic dimension of data. The feature extraction method-SIFT and the adaptive ISOMAP method are combined and conducted experiments on the ORL face image dataset. This paper analyzes and discusses the problem of effects of the neighborhood parameter and the intrinsic dimension size on the face image recognition.

Maximum Value of the Symmetrical Diagonal Matrix Based Two - Dimensional Eigenface s for Facial Recognition on the Variant Lighting and Expressions

This research proposed a new approach to recognize face image under various lighting expression. The Proposed method is started by generating of the Left Diagonal Matrix (LDM) and the Right Diagonal Matrix (RDM). Subsequently, the dimensionality reduction is conducted by using Two- Dimensional Eigenface of the LDM and the RDM. The results of dimensionality reduction are selected the maximum value based on the corresponding features. Finally, the geometric similarity measurement model is carried out to obtain the recognition rate. The proposed method was evaluated using three different facial image databases, which are the YALE, the ORL and the UoB face image databases. Two until six column features were used to measure the similarity between the training and the testing sets. Experimental results revealed that the proposed method produced 94.7%, 94%, and 92.2% recognition rate for the YALE, the ORL, and the UoB face image databases respectively. The proposed method was also compared to the other methods. On the ORL face image database, the comparison results show that the proposed method outperformed to the Eigenface, the Fisherface, and the Laplacianfaces but not for O-Laplacianfaces and Two-Dimensional Principal Component Analysis method. On the YALE and the UoB face image databases, the proposed method outperformed to the other appearance methods which are the Eigenface, the Fisherface, the Laplacianfaces, the O-Laplacianfaces and Two- Dimensional Principal Component Analysis methods.

A new approach: the local feature extraction based on the new regulation of the locally preserving projection

A novelty of the local feature extraction was proposed for face recognition. To optimize the Eigenvalue and Eigenvector, a new regulation has been embedded to the Locally Preserving Projection. The proposed method has reduced computation time to obtain the new subspace of the original of the Locally Preserving Projection. The proposed method has also produced orthogonal basis function matrix. However, orthogonal basis function matrix can reconstruct easier than non-orthogonal function. The proposed method has been evaluated by using three face image databases, they are the University of Bern, the YALE-A, and the ORL face image databases. The experimental results of the proposed method have produced the recognition rate 96% for the University of Bern, 96.19% for the YALE-A and 98% for the ORL facial image databases. The experimental results of the proposed method have produced higher recognition rate than the Principal Component Analysis, the Linear Discriminant Analysis and the Locally Preserving Projection.

Proposing the novelty classifier for face recognition

INTRODUCTION: Face recognition, one of the most explored themes in biometry, is used in a wide range of applications: access control, forensic detection, surveillance and monitoring systems, and robotic and human machine interactions. In this paper, a new classifier is proposed for face recognition: the novelty classifier. METHODS: The performance of a novelty classifier is compared with the performance of the nearest neighbor classifier. The ORL face image database was used. Three methods were employed for characteristic extraction: principal component analysis, bi-dimensional principal component analysis with dimension reduction in one dimension and bi-dimensional principal component analysis with dimension reduction in two directions. RESULTS: In identification mode, the best recognition rate with the leave-one-out strategy is equal to 100%. In the verification mode, the best recognition rate was also 100%. For the half-half strategy, the best recognition rate in the identification mode is equal to 98.5%, and in the verification mode, 88%. CONCLUSION: For face recognition, the novelty classifier performs comparable to the best results already published in the literature, which further confirms the novelty classifier as an important pattern recognition method in biometry.

Study of Face Feature Extraction and Recognition Techniques Based on Wavelet Analysis

Face recognition is a research hotspot of pattern recognition and artificial intelligence. This paper presents a method of extract face feature based on Wavelet. First, reduce vector dimension by wavelet decomposition of the image, second, train the multi class support vector machine (SVM) model by face feature vector extracted and make face recognition finally. The experiments on ORL face image database of the algorithm shows the superiority of the proposed algorithm in terms of recognition performance.

A two-phased and Ensemble scheme integrated Backpropagation algorithm

This paper presents a novel two-phased and Ensemble scheme integrated Backpropagation (TP-ES-BP) algorithm, which could greatly alleviate the problem of local minima of standard BP (SBP) algorithm, and overcome the limitations of individual component BPs in classification performance by the integration of Ensemble method. Empirical and t-test results of three groups of simulation experiments, including the face recognition task on ORL face image database and four benchmark classification tasks on datasets drawn from the UCI repository of machine learning databases, show that TP-ES-BP algorithm achieves significantly better recognition results and higher generalization performance compared to SBP and the state-of-the-art emotional backpropagation (EmBP) learning algorithm.

A fuzzy supervised learning method with dynamical parameter estimation for nonlinear discriminant analysis

In this paper, we develop a novel fuzzy supervised learning algorithm based on the dynamical parameter estimation. First, a reformative supervised fuzzy LDA algorithm (RF-LDA) for the training samples is proposed. Compared with the conventional fuzzy LDA algorithm, the presented algorithm computes the discriminant vectors associated with the membership grade from each training sample, which is theoretically effective in overcoming the classification limitation originating from the imprecise samples. Second, when a novel fuzzy LDA model is required in order to take some decision about the feature extraction and classification, the dynamical parameter estimation method of the fuzzy LDA model should recursively process the measured data as they become available. In the line of previous arguments, we approach the problem of control parameter estimation of RF-LDA by considering the formulation of a Hopfield Neural Network (HNN), which is named HRF-LDA. Third, considering the fact that the Kernel Fisher Discriminant (KFD) is effective in extracting the nonlinear discriminative information of the feature space by using kernel trick, a kernel version of HRF-LDA is presented subsequently, which has the potential to outperform the traditional fuzzy learning algorithms, especially in the cases of nonlinear small sample sizes. The advantage of this learning algorithm is that it successfully utilizes the improved kernel fuzzy LDA algorithm as a supervised feature extraction tool. Meanwhile, by means of the control parameter estimation, we address the problem that the particular value of offset in the calculation of the grade of membership is dynamically assigned. Extensive experimental studies conducted on the ORL, NUST603, FERET, Yale and XM2VTS face images show the effectiveness of the proposed fuzzy integrated algorithm.

Face recognition based on symmetrical kernel principal component analysis

In order to improve the practicability of face recognition technology,a new face recognition method was proposed by adopting the facial mirror symmetry and Kernel Principle Component Analysis(KPCA).Firstly,the original images were decomposed by wavelet transform,and the low frequency components could be obtained.Then,the odd symmetry samples and the even symmetry samples were obtained by mirror transforming.Odd/even eigen vector were separately extracted through KPCA and fused to composite features by an odd-even weighted factor.A nearest neighbor classifier was used to classify the images.The proposed method was tested on the ORL face image database.The experimental results show the method can increase the sample capacity,overcome the effect of illumination and posture,and raise the recognition rate.Besides,in the comprehensive performance,it is better than contrast method.

Graph embedding discriminant analysis for face recognition

This paper develops a supervised discriminant technique, called graph embedding discriminant analysis (GEDA), for dimensionality reduction of high-dimensional data in small sample size problems. GEDA can be seen as a linear approximation of a multimanifold-based learning framework in which nonlocal property is taken into account besides the marginal property and local property. GEDA seeks to find a set of perfect projections that not only can impact the samples of intraclass and maximize the margin of interclass, but also can maximize the nonlocal scatter at the same time. This characteristic makes GEDA more intuitive and more powerful than linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and marginal fisher analysis (MFA). The proposed method is applied to face recognition and is examined on the Yale, ORL and AR face image databases. The experimental results show that GEDA consistently outperforms LDA and MFA when the training sample size per class is small.

Unsupervised Discriminant Analysis Based on the Local and Non-local Mean

Abstract Considering the performance of unsupervised discriminant projections (UDP) is gravely influenced by outliers, especially in small training sample size situation, a novel method called unsupervised discriminant analysis (UDA) based on the local and non-local mean for feature extraction is proposed in this paper, which is robust to outliers. It utilizes the local and non-local mean to construct the local and non-local scatter, to some extent, overcomes the discriminant difficulty caused by outliers. Besides, LUDA is computationally more efficient than UDP. Experimental results on ORL, YALE and AR face image databases show that the proposed UDA is more efficient and effective than UDP.

Recursive “concave–convex” Fisher Linear Discriminant with applications to face, handwritten digit and terrain recognition

In classification, previous studies have shown that an eigenvalue based technique can be cast as an related SVM-type problem and that by solving this SVM-type problem, the performance can be improved significantly. In this paper, we develop a recursive ''concave-convex'' Fisher Linear Discriminant (DR) (RPFLD) for dimension reduction technique of high-dimensional data to extract as many meaningful features as possible, which incorporates the fundamental idea behind Fisher Linear Discriminant and casts the Fisher Linear Discriminant as a ''concave-convex'' programming problem based on the hinge loss. The solution of our method follows from solving the related SVM-type optimization problems iteratively, which means the proposed method, can be viewed as the combination of multiple related SVM-type problems. The special formulation of our method provides convenience for constructing sparse multi-class Fisher Linear Discriminant directly. Due to use of a recursive procedure, the number of features available from RPFLD is independent of the number of classes, meaning that in contrast to the original Fisher Linear Discriminant the number of features available from our method has no upper bound. We evaluate our algorithm on the Yale, and ORL face image databases, handwritten digit database and Terrain image dataset. Experimental results show that RPFLD outperforms other Fisher Linear Discriminant algorithms.