Organochlorine Pesticides In Human Milk Research Articles

Investigating the levels of organochlorine pesticides in human milk at three lactational stages: an intensive Ghanaian study.

During breastfeeding, the human breasts secrete three different kinds of milk. Research indicates that newborns exposed to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) during developmental stages, even at low concentrations, may suffer irreparable harm. The study aimed to ascertain whether OCPs levels in human milk vary across lactational stages. University of Health and Allied Sciences Research Ethics Committee (UHAS- REC) examined and approved the study protocol. 47 volunteers were chosen using purposive sampling. Each participant donated 15ml of each type of breast milk. Colostrum was taken shortly after delivery up to day 4, transitional milk between day 5 and two weeks postpartum, while mature milk was taken two weeks afterwards. A modified version of QuEChERS was used to process 10.0g aliquot of each breast milk sample, and the resulting extracts analysed for OCPs employing a Gas Chromatograph, Varian CP 3800, fitted with electron capture detector (ECD). The detection threshold was not reached for any of the six OCPs tested. This implied that none of the breast milk components analysed in this study contained any detectable levels of OCPs that might have posed any serious health risks to the infants through breastfeeding. Aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, and heptachlor were not found in detectable quantities in mothers' milk during the three stages of lactation. Our findings are encouraging. The study's findings likely show that the Stockholm Convention's campaign to remove POPs from the environment seems to be yielding positive impact.

Persistent organic pollutants in Croatian breast milk: An overview of pollutant levels and infant health risk assessment from 1976 to the present.

This review article summarizes our research of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in human milk from Croatian mothers over the last few decades. Our studies make up the bulk of all POPs research in human milk in Croatia and show a state-of-the art in the research area. The first investigations were made in 1970`s. Aim of our review article is to document the comprehensive results over several decades as the best tool to: 1.) contribute to understanding of POPs and their potential health risks, 2.) evaluate effectiveness of legislative bans and restrictions on human exposure to POPs in Croatia, and 3.) to suggest further actions. In our review we discuss: 1.) Human milk between 2011 and 2014 - evaluation of interrelations of organochlorine pesticides (OCP) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in human milk and their association with the mother's age and parity using artificial intelligence methods; and our yet unpublished research data on health risks for infants assessed through daily PCB and OCP intake. 2.) Time trends of PCB and OCP in human milk between 1976 and 2014.3.) polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDD/F) in human milk in 2000., and yet unpublished data on PCDD/F and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) in 2014.

Dietary habits associated with the presence of organochlorine pesticides in human milk

This study aims to establish the relationship between the consumption of certain foods and the presence of organochlorine pesticides in human milk. A total of 167 samples of breastmilk were collected. Sample analysis was carried out by gas chromatography with electron capture detector. Pesticide concentrations (op’DDT, pp’DDT, pp’DDE, Σ-DDT, HCB, β-HCH) were grouped by consumption level of fish, dairy products, meat, eggs, and seafood and then were compared to each other. The odds ratio (OR) was calculated between the concentration of pesticides (higher and/or lower than median) and the exposure variable (high consumption). The results indicated low median concentrations of HCB, β − HCH, op’DDT and pp’DDT, whose fluctuations and trends between different frequencies of food consumption were not significant. pp’DDE and Σ − DDT values according to the increase in consumption of fish were significantly increased. Women with high fish consumption have a higher risk of high concentrations of pp’DDE and Σ-DDT (OR: high consumption: 5.6 (1.3–23.6). A protective effect was observed in the consumption of dairy products (β-HCH and op’DDT), meat (HCB), and seafood (pp’DDT). These results suggest that it is possible that the consumption of fish, dairy products, meat, and seafood influences the presence of organochlorine pesticides in the studied population.

Influence of Breastfeeding Time on Levels of Organochlorine Pesticides in Human Milk of a Mexican Population.

This study was conducted with the objective of determining whether there is a depuration of organochlorine pesticides in breast milk according to breastfeeding time. In total, 171 samples from mothers that lived in the State of Guerrero, Mexico were analyzed. There was a weak negative relationship between pp'DDE (r = -0.216) and Σ-DDT (r = -0.222) concentrations with the days of lactation. In a comparison analysis, a statistically significant decrease of pp'DDT and pp'DDE levels was observed, as well as the Σ-DDT from the first to the fifth week of lactation. A reduction of 0.188 mg/kg lipid of pp'DDE and 0.181 mg/kg lipid of Σ-DDT per week was obtained. HCB, β-HCH and op'DDT concentrations were low and had no major fluctuations between subgroups. The low levels found and the observed reduction in time involve less exposure to the infant to these pollutants. Through this methodology changes in levels of certain organochlorine pesticides in various stages of human milk production may be shown.

Assessment of organochlorine pesticides in human milk and risk exposure to infants from North-East India

Despite the worldwide ban on use of persistent organochlorine pesticides, their usage continued until recently in India, for vector-borne disease eradication programs and agricultural purposes. The concentrations of organochlorine contaminants, DDT and HCH, have been determined in human breast milk from Dibrugarh and Nagaon districts of Assam state, North-East India. The results demonstrated that the mean levels of total DDT were 3210 ng/g lipid wt. and 2870 ng/g lipid wt. and total HCH were 2720 ng/g lipid wt. and 2330 ng/g lipid wt. in Nagaon and Dibrugarh respectively. There was no significant difference in the levels of investigated pollutants between the two districts. Significant differences in ADI (Average daily intake) for total DDT were found between the two districts. In addition, a positive correlation was observed between OCP levels in breast milk and age of mothers. Based on OCP levels in human breast milk, the ADI by the infants has been estimated. It has been found that high daily intake of DDTs and HCHs by the infants exceeded the TDI (Tolerable daily intake) which implied that infants of the region are potentially at high risk by these contaminants.

Exposure of young mothers and newborns to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in Guangzhou, China

Exposure of young mothers and newborns to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were assessed by measuring the levels of OCPs in human milk (HM) and maternal blood (MB) and umbilical cord blood (UCB) samples from Guangzou in China. 21 OCPs were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The results showed that the median levels (ranges) of total HCHs (four HCH isomers) in HM, MB and UBC were 54.7 (5.7–159.3), 43.7 (1.9–386.6), and 20.2 (4.0–103.2) ng/g lipid, respectively; and the median concentration of total DDTs (DDT and its metabolites) were 2114.6 (329.1–6164.6), 1676.0(283.4–6167.7), and 1287.8(189.6–3296.0) ng/g lipid, respectively. On a lipid basis, the chemical concentrations were in the order HM > MB > UCB. Comparison with literature data showed that the levels of ∑DTTs and ∑HCHs in milk and maternal blood samples were within the range reported in samples in other Chinese provinces and higher than those in developed or industrialized countries, but significantly lower than contaminated area such as in India. The predominant pollutant in the HCH family is β-HCH. p,p′-DDE is a predominant pollutant in all DDEs and DDDs and DDTs for all the samples tested, and accounted for more than 80% of total HCHs and DDTs.

Long-term biomonitoring of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in human milk from mothers living in northern Germany

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides are persistent organic pollutants that have a widespread distribution in the environment. Human biomonitoring is a suitable tool to assess the burden of humans with these substances. Over a time span of 8 years, a free analysis of their milk was offered to lactating mothers residing in the state of Lower Saxony, Germany. The human milk was analyzed for a number of organic chemicals including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (beta-HCH). Factors that may influence these levels were investigated using a questionnaire. In total, 4314 samples were collected in the years 1999-2006 and analyzed for their content of these persistent organic pollutants (POPs). A clear downward trend of median total PCB, DDT, beta-HCH and HCB values in all participants and also in different selected subgroups could be observed. The median values of calculated total PCB in the year 2006 including all participants was 0.1825mg/kg lipid, that of DDT 0.0815mg/kg lipid, beta-HCH 0.0116mg/kg lipid and of HCB 0.0229mg/kg lipid. There were reductions between 40.9% and 47.1% compared to the year 1999. Among other influencing factors, median concentrations of total PCB, DDT, beta-HCH and HCB showed a clear rise with increasing age of mothers whereas an increasing number of breastfed infants per mother led to a decrease. The proportions of other measured substances exceeding limits of quantification were as follows: dieldrin 68.6%, alpha-HCH 1.3%, gamma-HCH 60.1%, heptachlor epoxide 41.5%, musk xylene 15.6%, musk ambrette 0.4%. We conclude that the known declining trend of important xenobiotic substances in human milk of German mothers has continued.

PCBs and OCPs in human milk and selected foods from Luqiao and Pingqiao in Zhejiang, China

This study was conducted to measure the levels of 23 PCB congeners and 6 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in human milk and three food types collected from Luqiao and Pingqiao in Zhejiang Province, China. An effort was also made to explore the potential health risk for the mothers and breast-fed infants living in these two localities. Luqiao was selected as the sampling site because it is the largest place for the disassembly of obsolete transformers and electrical waste in China. Pingqiao, located 100 km NW of Luqiao, is not known to be a place for any electronic or electrical waste and hence was chosen as the control site. Both localities are important agricultural places in the province. The organochlorines were measured in the samples using the GC-muECD technique. Micro-EROD bioassay method was also used as a complement of the chemical analysis to estimate the TEQ levels of dioxin-like PCBs in human milk. The data showed that the human milk, rice, hen egg, and fish samples from Luqiao were more heavily contaminated with PCBs than those from Pingqiao, suggesting that the mothers and their breast-fed infants in Luqiao tended to receive greater exposure to PCBs than those living in Pingqiao. The OCP levels in the two localities were found comparable, suggesting that the major source of contamination with these pesticides was from their agricultural uses. Significant correlation (R2 = 0.87, P<0.001) of PCB TEQs was found between the bioassay and chemical analysis method, suggesting that micro-EROD is an effective method for comprehensive determination of TEQ levels in human milk. Comparison with literature data showed that the PCB levels in milk samples from Luqiao were significantly higher than those from localities in other Chinese provinces and comparable to those in developed or industrialized countries.

Organochlorine Pesticides and PCB Congeners in Human Milk from Two Population Groups in Croatia

This study analysed the levels of 20 PCB congeners and organochlorine pesticides in human milk samples collected from two geographically different areas of Croatia. Organochlorine pesticide levels in human milk samples were between the determination limit and 1287 ng/g milk fat on both locations. beta-HCH, gamma-HCH and DDE were detected in all samples. The profile of concentration medians were the same in milk from both locations: DDE>beta-HCH>gamma-HCH~DDT>HCB>DDD>alpha-HCH. The concentration range of PCBs was between the determination limit and 213 ng/g of milk fat. PCB-138 and PCB-153 were found in all analysed samples, while PCB-157 was below determination limit in all samples. Ten PCB congeners were detected in more than 50 % of samples. The concentration median was the same for both locations: the highest concentration was measured for PCB-153, PCB-138 and PCB-180, and the lowest for PCB-60.

Continuous surveillance of organochlorine pesticides in human milk from 1983 to 1998 in Beijing, China

A study was carried out to study the accumulative levels and dynamic changes of organochlorine pesticides in human milk in Beijing from 1982 to 1998, and the effect of prohibition and restriction on the use of DDT and BHC (666) in China in 1983. The milk samples were collected from women during the lactation period in four districts of Beijing from 1982 to 1998, in 1991, 1993 and 1998, respectively. The contents of DDT and BHC in human milk were determined according to the standard method of biology-monitoring of PR China. The average fat content of human milk was about 3% from 1982–1998 in Beijing. The average concentration of pp-DDT and op-DDT in 1985 was less than 0.10 mg/kg and remained so until 1998. The average concentration of pp'-DDT decreased from 1.80 mg/kg in 1982 to 0.24 mg/kg in 1998 and that of pp-DDE descended from 5.87 mg/kg to 1.72 mg/kg and the total concentration of DDT dropped from 7.71 mg/kg to 2.04 mg/kg. Since prohibition of organochlorine pesticides 1983, the average concentration of β-BHC and total BHC fell respectively from 9.66 mg/kg and 10.1 mg/kg in 1983 to 1.18 mg/kg in 1998. However, the accumulative concentration of DDT and BHC was much higher than that of some foreign countries. Therefore, it was important and necessary to monitor organochlorine compounds in human milk continuously.

Levels of organochlorine pesticides in human milk from central Taiwan

The present study determined the residues of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in human milk collected in central Taiwan between December 2000 and November 2001. The OCPs were analyzed by GC/MS for 36 human milk samples from healthy women ranging between 20 and 36 years of age. The predominant OCPs were p, p′-DDE, p, p′-DDT, α-CHL, heptachlor epoxide, heptachlor, β-HCH, and γ-HCH, with median levels of 228, 19, 7.4, 4.0, 2.3, 1.2, and 0.8 ng/g lipid, respectively. The residues of OCPs in human milk from central Taiwan were comparable to those described in results from Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Japan, and were significantly lower than those from investigations in Asian countries, including China, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Low DDE/DDT ratio (mean = 13.6, SD = 6.54) indicated that residual OCPs in human milk mainly originate from past exposure. A notable decrease in DDT levels (∑ DDT = 333 ng/g lipid) in human milk was found in this study compared to results from the previous two decades (∑ DDT = 3595 ng/g lipid). Hypothetically, the level of α-CHL was significantly associated with total TEQ levels in Taiwanese human milk because of the sources of food contaminant, i.e. animal fat. Based on low OCP levels in Taiwanese human milk and low estimated median daily intake of total DDTs for a breastfed infant (1358 ng/kg/day) with the assumption of an infant weighting 4 kg and consuming 699 g milk per day in the first month after birth, the Taiwanese policy of breast-feeding promotion was supported.

The investigation on basic contents of organochlorine pesticides in human milk during consecutive periods in Beijing urban areas

To investigate the basic contents of organochlorine pesticides (DDT, BHC and HCB) in human milk of normal residents in Beijing urban areas. Through continuous survey on the trend of organochlorine contents in human milk since DDT and BHC pesticides were forbidden in use in 1983, and to evaluate the effects of this program, the required lying-in women residents in urban districts for at least 5 years were enrolled in this study. All these lying-in women and also their family members were not exposed to or engaged in producing or selling organochlorine pesticides. In this study, the women chosen were giving birth to a child just after one week to 4 months. The detection method used is the national standard biological detection method. In 1982, the total amount of DDT and BHC contents in human milk were 6.45 mg/kg and 6.97 mg/kg, respectively, which were found the highest level in the word. The contents of organochlorine were descending apparently since the DDT and BHC pesticides were forbidden by Chinese government in 1983. According to the standards of FAO/WHO, the average intake of total DDT and beta-BHC in the infants born in 1998 was 11 and 6 microg/kg, respectively. Both of them were less than the allowable daily intake amount regulated by WHO and the Ministry of Health of Japan. The study might make clear that the basic levels of organochlorine pesticides (DDT, BHC and HCB) in human milk of normal residents and the attenuation trend of 2 pesticides cumulative levels in human body, through estimating the intake quantity of organochlorine by infants, showing that the DDT and BHC daily intake from human milk absorbed by infants, who were born after 1998, were at a safe level. It was indicated that the measure for forbidding use of DDT and BHC pesticides is contributory.

A method to determine residue levels of persistent organochlorine pesticides in human milk from Indonesian women.

A method has been developed for the analysis of organochlorine pesticides in human milk using solvent extraction, Florisil solid phase extraction clean-up and analysis by gas chromatography with an electron capture detector. The recovery of analytes from spiked milk samples was in the range 53 +/- 1% to 109 +/- 7% (n = 9). A small number of samples were obtained from women in a rural and an urban area of Indonesia and analysed using the developed method. The results are reported on a milk fat basis. All samples contained detectable residues of p,p'-DDT (urban mean 0.11 +/- 0.18 mgkg(-1) (n = 5), rural mean 0.07 +/- 0.03 mg kg(-1) (n = 5)) and p,p'-DDE (urban mean 0.05 +/- 0.04 m kg(-1) (n = 5), rural mean 0.76 +/- 1.46 mg kg(-1) (n = 5)). Residues of HCB, betaHCH, alpha-endosulfan and dieldrin were also detected in some samples. There was no significant difference (at the 95% confidence level) in levels of pesticides between urban and rural areas. The levels of organochlorine pesticides in milk from Indonesian women were lower than those reported from Indonesian women exposed to DDT through malaria eradication schemes and were similar to levels reported from UK and Japan.

Analysis of organochlorine pesticides in human milk: preliminary results.

In the face of evidence of human milk contamination by organochlorine pesticides, an analysis was performed on samples of milk obtained from healthy lactating women in the provinces of Granada and Almeria in Southern Spain. The samples were obtained by the Neonate Section of the Department of Pediatrics of Granada University Hospital (Neonatology Division) and by the Neonatal Service of Poniente Hospital in El Ejido, Almería. A liquid-liquid extraction procedure was performed. The cleaning of the sample before gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) used silica Sep-Pak. Among other pesticides, aldrin, dieldrin, DDT and its metabolites, lindane, methoxychlor and endosulfan were identified. The presence of these products was confirmed by mass spectrometry. The identification and quantification of these organochlorine molecules is important because they have estrogenic effects.

Levels of organochlorine pesticides in human milk in Ahmedabad, India.

Concentrations of organochlorine compounds, i.e., alpha HCH, gamma HCH, beta HCH, p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD and PCBs were determined in 50 human milk samples collected in Ahmedabad, India during 1981-1982. The mothers' ages ranged from 18 to 30 years (mean 24 years), and they were nursing their first or second child. All 50 samples contained alpha-HCH, gamma HCH, beta HCH, p,p'-DDE, and p,p'-DDT in a concentration of 17.51, 1.62, 205.48, 244.71, and 53.43, respectively (median micrograms/kg: whole-milk basis). o,p'-DDT was found in 48 samples whereas p,p'-DDD was detected in 44 samples. The concentration of o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDD was 53.43 and 5.13 micrograms/kg (median), expressed on a whole-milk basis. PCBs were absent in all samples.

Organochlorine pesticides in human milk from different areas of Kenya 1983-1985.

Residue levels of the chlorinated hydrocarbons p,p'-DDT (2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane), p,p'-DDE (2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethane), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), alpha-, beta-, and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), aldrin, dieldrin, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in human milk of Kenyan mothers living in different areas of Kenya. The main organochlorine contaminants found in all the milk samples analyzed were p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE. Great regional differences were found, and mean levels of sum DDT and DDT/DDE ratio ranged from 1.1 to 18.7 mg/kg milk fat and from 0.7 to 5.7, respectively. In general, relatively low residue levels of HCB, alpha-HCH, beta-HCH, aldrin, and dieldrin were detected in 59, 37, 27, 37, and 19%, respectively, of all the milk samples analyzed. Quantifiable residue levels of PCBs and alpha-HCH were not found. The results were examined in relation to differences in living conditions with regard to agricultural activities, dietary habits, and reported use of pesticides in the various sampling areas.

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides in human milk and blood collected in Osaka Prefecture from 1972 to 1977.

Annual surveys of levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides in human milk and blood obtained from residents in Osaka Prefecture were made for six years from 1972 to 1977. The levels of PCB in human milk were within the range reported by others, and the average concentrations were in the range from 0.03 to 0.04 ppm on the whole basis of milk, and were approximately 10 times higher than those found in blood. There were 15 exceptional milk samples whose PCB level on whole basis exceeded 0.1 ppm. The PCB levels in human milk increased from 1972 to 1974, and decreased from 1974 to 1976. However, these changes are not statistically significant, because there has been continuous environmental contamination with PCB for many years so for. There was a proportional relation between the PCB levels in blood and in milk obtained from the same mothers. The PCB levels in milk and blood of mothers who had given first childbirth were higher than those of mothers who had given the second or more childbirth. A gradual decrease in β-BHC level was observed during this period. The levels of p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDT and dieldrin were fairly constant from 1972 to 1976. However, remarkable decrease in the levels of the organochlorine pesticides was found in 1977.

Gas chromatograhic method for the determination of organochlorine pesticides in human milk.

Gas chromatograhic method for the determination of organochlorine pesticides in human milk.

Polychlorinated biphenyls, hexachlorobenzene and other organochlorine pesticides in human milk.

Polychlorinated biphenyls, hexachlorobenzene and other organochlorine pesticides in human milk.